Abstract
In this chapter, we review the physiology of switchgrass from seed dormancy till the effects of water and nutrients stress on grown plants. These leftacteristics are presented and discussed mainly at the canopy and whole-plant level with emphasis on the agro-physiology of the species in view of the possible contribution of crop physiology to agricultural development. Switchgrass is noted for the variable degrees of seed dormancy regulated by endogenous and exogenous factors that determine the successful seedling establishment. Plant growth rates are determined by temperature while the reproductive phase is controlled mainly by photoperiod. There is also evidence that some physiological attributes, such as photosynthesis, transpiration, and water use efficiency differ between tetraploid, hexaploid, and octoploid ecotypes. But despite these differences, in general switchgrass combines important attributes of efficient use of nutrients and water with high yields thanks to its ability to acquire resources from extended soil volumes, especially at deep layers. Moreover at canopy level, resources capture and conservation are determined by morpho-physiological leftacteristics (C4 photosynthetic pathway, stomatal control of transpiration, high leaf area index, low light extinction coefficient) that enhance radiation use efficiency and reduce carbon losses. However, specific information on switchgrass physiology is still missing, in particular deeper understanding of physiological principles controlling the water and nutrients acquisition mechanisms and allocation under suboptimal growing conditions. The physiology of tillering and root respiration are also factors that need further investigation.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Parrish DJ, Fike JH (2005) The biology and agronomy of switchgrass for biofuels. Crit Rev Plant Sci 24:423–459
Casler MD, Vogel KP, Taliaferro CM, Wynia RL (2004) Latitudinal adaptation of switchgrass populations. Crop Sci 44:293–303
Hultquist SJ, Vogel KP, Lee DJ, Arumuganathan K, Kaeppler S (1996) Chloroplast DNA and nuclear DNA content variations among cultivars of switchgrass, Panicum virgatum L. Crop Sci 36:1049–1052
Sanderson MA, Stair DW, Hussey MA (1997) Physiological and morphological responses of perennial forages to stress. Adv Agron 59:171–224
McLaughlin SB, Kszos LA (2005) Development of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) as a bio-energy feedstock in the United States. Biomass Bioenerg 28:515–535
Shen ZX, Parrish DJ, Wolf DD, Welbaum GE (2001) Stratification in switchgrass seeds is re-versed and hastened by drying. Crop Sci 41:1546–1551
Zarnstorff ME, Keys RD, Chamblee DS (1994) Growth regulator and seed storage effects on switchgrass germination. Agron J 86:667–672
Sanderson MA, Reed RL, McLaughlin SB et al (1996) Switchgrass as a sustainable bioenergy crop. Bioresour Technol 56:83–93
Duclos DV (2009) Investigating seed dormancy in switchgrass. American society for horticultural science annual conference. St. Louis, Missouri, 25–28 July 2009
Jensen NK, Boe A (1991) Germination of mechanically scarified neoteric switchgrass seed. J Range Manage 44:299–301
Sarath G, Bethke PC, Jones R, Baird LM, Hou G, Mitchell RB (2006) Nitric oxide accelerates seed germination in warm-season grasses. Planta 223:1154–1164
Sarath G, Mitchell RB (2008) Aged switchgrass seed lot’s response to dormancy-breaking chemicals. Seed Technol 30:7–16
Zhang J, Maun MA (1989) Seed dormancy of Panicum virgatum L on the shoreline sand dunes of lake Erie. Am Midl Nat 122:77–87
Haynes JG, Pill WG, Evans TA (1997) Seed treatments improve the germination and seedling emergence of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L). Hort Sci 32:1222–1226
Bentsink L, Koornneef M (2008) Seed dormancy and germination. American society of plant biologists. The arabidopsis Book. Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Parcy F, Valon C, Kohara A, Misera S, Giraudat J (1997) The ABSCISIC ACID-INSENSITIVE3, FUSCA3, and LEAFY COTOLEDON1 loci act in concert to control multiple aspects of arabidopsis seed development. Plant Cell 9:1265–1277
Sarath G, Hou G, Baird LM, Mitchell RB (2007) Reactive oxygen species, ABA and nitric ox-ide interactions on the germination of warm-season C4-grasses. Planta 226:697–708
Sarath G, Hou G, Baird LM, Mitchell RB (2007) ABA, ROS and NO are key players during switchgrass seed germination. Plant Signal Behav 2:492–493
Newman PR, Moser LE (1988) Grass seedling emergence, morphology, and establishment as affected by planting depth. Agron J 80:383–387
Elbersen HW, Ocumpaugh WR, Hussey MA, Sanderson MA, Tischler CR (1998) Crown node elevation of switchgrass and kleingrass under low light. Crop Sci 38:712–716
Hsu FH, Nelson CJ, Matches AG (1985) Temperature effects on germination of perennial warm-season for-age grasses. Crop Sci 25:215–220
Seepaul R, Macoon B, Reddy KR, Baldwin B (2011) Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L) intraspecific variation and thermotolerance classification using in vitro seed germination assay. Am J Plant Sci 2:134–147
Vassey TL, George JR, Mullen RE (1985) Early-, mid-, and late-spring establishment of switchgrass at several seeding rates. Agron J 77:253–257
Newman PR, Moser LE (1988) Seedling root development and morphology of cool-season and warm-season forage grasses. Crop Sci 28:148–151
Hsu FH, Nelson CJ, Matches AG (1985) Temperature effects on seedling development of perennial warm-season forage grasses. Crop Sci 25:249–255
Barney JN, Mann JJ, Kyser GB, Blumwald E, Van Deynze A, DiTomaso JM (2009) Tolerance of switchgrass to extreme soil moisture stress: ecological implications. Plant Sci 177:724–732
Smart AJ, Moser LE (1999) Switchgrass seedling development as affected by seed size. Agron J 91:335–338
Wilson AM, Hyder DN, Briske DD (1976) Drought resistance leftacteristics of blue grama seedlings. Agron J 68:479–484
Xu B, Li F, Shan L, Ma Y, Ichizen N, Huang J (2006) Gas exchange, biomass partition, and water relationships of three grass seedlings under water stress. Weed Biol Manag 6:79–88
Elbersen HW, Ocumpaugh WR, Hussey MA, Sanderson MA, Tischler CR (1999) Field evaluation of switchgrass seedlings divergently selected for crown node placement. Crop Sci 39:475–479
Aiken GE, Springer TL (1995) Seed size distribution, germination, and emergence of 6 switch-grass cultivars. J Range Manage 48:455–458
Kneebone WR, Cremer CL (1955) The relationship of seed size to seedling vigor in some native grass species. Agron J 47:472–477
Casler MD (2005) Ecotypic variation among switchgrass populations from the northern USA. Crop Sci 45:388–398
Sanderson MA (1992) Morphological development of switchgrass and kleingrass. Agron J 84:415–419
Gunter LE, Tuskan GA, Wullschleger SD (1996) Diversity among populations of switchgrass based on RAPD markers. Crop Sci 36:1017–1022
Hopkins AA, Taliaferro CM, Murphy CD, Christian D (1996) Chromosome number and nuclear DNA content of several switchgrass populations. Crop Sci 36:1192–1195
Martinez-Reyna JM, Vogel KP (2002) Incompatibility systems in switchgrass. Crop Sci 42:1800–1805
Wullschleger SD, Gunter LE, Garten CT (1996) Genetic diversity and long-term stability of yield in the bioenergy crop switchgrass. Five-year summary report to ORNL biofuels feed-stock development program, Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Fike JH, Parrish DJ, Wolf DD, Balasko JA, Green JT Jr, Rasnake M, Reynolds JH (2006) Switchgrass production for the upper southeastern USA: influence of cultivar and cutting frequency on biomass yields. Biomass Bioenerg 30:207–213
Olson WW (1984) Phenology of selected varieties of warm season native grasses. In: Proceedings of the 9th North American prairie conference. 29 July 1984–1 Aug 1984, Moorhead, Minnesota
Van Esbroeck GA, Hussey MA, Sanderson MA (2003) Variation between Alamo and cave-in-rock switchgrass in response to photoperiod extension. Crop Sci 43:639–643
Taliaferro CM, Hopkins AA (1997) Breeding and selecting of new Switchgrass varieties for in-creased biomass production. Five year summary report. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge
Moore KJ, Moser LE, Vogel KP, Waller SS, Johnson BE, Pederson JF (1991) Describing and quantifying growth stages of perennial forage grasses. Agron J 83:1073–1077
Sanderson MA, Wolf DD (1995) Morphological development of switchgrass in diverse environments. Agron J 87:908–915
Van Esbroeck GA, Hussey MA, Sanderson MA (1997) Leaf appearance rate and final leaf number of switchgrass cultivars. Crop Sci 37:864–870
Madakadze I, Coulman BE, Stewart K, Peterson P, Samson R, Smith DL (1998) Phenology and tiller leftacteristics of big bluestem and switchgrass cultivars in a short growing season area. Agron J 90:489–495
Redfearn DD, Moore KJ, Vogel KP, Waller SS, Mitchell RB (1997) Canopy architecture and morphology of switchgrass populations differing in forage yield. Agron J 89:262–269
Beaty ER, Engel JKL, Powell JD (1978) Tiller development and growth in switchgrass. J Range Manage 31:361–365
Murphy JS, Briske DD (1992) Regulation of tillering by apical dominance: chronology, inter-pretive value, and current perspectives. J Range Manage 45:419–429
George JR, Reigh GS (1987) Spring growth and tiller leftacteristics of switchgrass. Can J Plant Sci 672:167–174
Smith D (1975) Trends of nonstructural carbohydrates in the stem bases of switchgrass. J Range Manage 28:389–391
Moser LE, Vogel KP (1995) Switchgrass, bigbluestem and Indiangrass. In: Barnes RF, Miller DA, Nelson CJ (eds) Forages, an introduction to grassland agriculture, vol 1. Iowa State University Press, Ames
Mitchell RB, Moser LE, Moore KJ, Redfearn DD (1998) Tiller demographics and leaf area index of four perennial pasture grasses. Agron J 90:47–53
Boe A, Casler MD (2005) Hierarchical analysis of switchgrass morphology. Crop Sci 45:2465–2472
Schacht WH, Smart AJ, Anderson BE, Moser LE, Rasby R (1998) Growth responses of warm- season tallgrasses to dormantseason management. J Range Manage 51:442–446
Muir JP, Sanderson MA, Ocumpaugh WR, Jones RM, Reed RL (2001) Biomass production of ‘Alamo’ switchgrass in response to nitrogen, phosphorus, and row spacing. Agron J 93:896–901
Carman JG, Briske DD (1982) Root initiation and leaf elongation of dependent little bluestem tillers following defoliation. Agron J 74:432–435
Dalrymple RL, Dwyer DD (1967) Root and shoot growth of five range grasses. J Range Manage 20:141–145
Garten CT Jr, Smith JL, Tyler DD et al (2010) Intra-annual changes in biomass, carbon, and nitrogen dynamics at 4-year old switchgrass field trials in west Tennessee, USA. Agr Ecosyst Environ 136:177–184
Vogel KP (2004) Switchgrass. In: Sollenberger LE, Moser L, Burson B (eds) Warm-season (C4) grasses. Agron monogr 45. ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, WI, USA
Tufekcioglu A, Raich JW, Isenhart TM, Schultz RC (1999) Fine root dynamics, coarse root biomass, root distribution, and soil respiration in a multispecies riparian buffer in Central Iowa, USA. Agroforest Syst 44:163–174
Xu B, Li F, Shan L (2010) Seasonal root biomass and distribution of switchgrass and milk vetch intercropping under 2:1 row replacement in a semiarid region in northwest China. Commun Soil Sci Plan 41:1959–1973
Ma Z, Wood CW, Bransby DI (2000) Impacts of soil management on root leftacteristics of switchgrass. Biomass Bioenerg 18:105–112
Monti A, Zatta A (2009) Root distribution and soil moisture retrieval in perennial and annual energy crops in Northern Italy. Agr Ecosyst Environ 132:252–259
Bolinder MA, Angers DA, Bélanger G, Michaud R , Laverdière MR (2002) Root biomass and shoot to root ratios of perennial forage crops in eastern Canada. Can J Plant Sci 82:731–737
Garten CT Jr, Wullschleger SD (1999) Soil carbon inventories under a bioenergy crop (Switchgrass): measurement limitations. J Environ Qual 28:1359–1365
Tufekcioglu A, Raich JW, Isenhart TM, Schultz RC (2001) Soil respiration within riparian buffers and adjacent crop fields. Plant Soil 229:117–124
Frank AB, Berdahl JD, Hanson JD, Liebig MA, Johnson HA (2004) Biomass and carbon parti-tioning in switchgrass. Crop Sci 44:1391–1396
Garten CT Jr, Wullschleger SD (2000) Soil carbon dynamics beneath switchgrass as indicated by stable isotope analysis. J Environ Qual 29:1–9
Eggemeyer KD, Awada T, Harvey FE, Wedin DA, Zhou X, Zanner CW (2008) Seasonal changes in depth of water uptake for encroaching trees juniperus virginiana and pinus ponderosa and two dominant C4 grasses in a semiarid grassland. Tree Physiol 29:157–169
Tufekcioglu A, Raich JW, Isenhart TM, Schultz RC (2003) Biomass, carbon and nitrogen dy-namics of multi-species riparian buffers within an agricultural watershed in Iowa, USA. Agroforest Syst 57:187–198
Lemus R, Parrish DJ, Abaye O (2008) Nitrogen-use dynamics in switchgrass grown for bio-mass. Bioenerg Res 1:153–162
Lemus R, Parrish DJ, Wolf DD (2009) Nutrient uptake by “Alamo” switchgrass used as an energy crop. Bioenerg Res 2:37–50
Zegada-Lizarazu W, Elbersen W, Cosentino SL, Zatta A, Alexopoulou E, Monti A (2010) Agronomic aspects of future energy crops in Europe. Biofuel Bioprod Bior 4:674–691
Reynolds JH, Walker CL, Kirchner MJ (2000) Nitrogen removal in switchgrass biomass under two harvest systems. Biomass Bioenerg 19:281–286
Griffin JL, Jung GA (1983) Leaf and stem forage quality of big bluestem and switchgrass. Agron J 75:723–726
Smith D, Greenfield SB (1979) Distribution of chemical constituents among shoot parts of timothy and switchgrass at anthesis. J Plant Nutr 1:81–99
Radiotis T, Li J, Goel K, Eisner R (1999) Fiber leftacteristics, pupability, and bleachability of switchgrass. Tappi J 82:100–105
Heaton E, Voigt T, Long SP (2004) A quantitative review of comparing the yields of two candidate C4 perennial biomass crops in relation to nitrogen, temperature and water. Biomass Bioenerg 27:21–30
Jager HI, Baskaran LM, Brandt CC, Davis EB, Gunderson CA, Wullschleger SD (2010) Empirical geographic modeling of switchgrass yields in the United States. GCB Bioenergy 2:248–257
Wang D, Le Bauer DS, Dietze MC (2010) A quantitative review comparing the yield of switchgrass in monocultures and mixtures in relation to climate and management factors. GCB Bioenerg 2:16–25
Zhang X, Izaurralde RC, Manowitz D, West TO, Post WM, Thomson AM, Bandura VP, Nichols J, Williams JR (2010) An integrative modeling framework to evaluate the productivity and sustainability of biofuels crop production systems. GCB Bioenergy 2:258–277
Wullschleger SD, Davis EB, Borsuk ME, Gunderson CA, Lynd LR (2010) Biomass production for the herbaceous bioenergy crop switchgrass: database description and determinants of yield. Agron J 102:1158–1168
Kiniry JR, Williams JR, Gassman PW, Debaeke P (1992) A general, process-oriented model for two competing plant species. Trans ASAE 35:801–810
Izaurralde RC, Williams JR, McGill WB, Rosenberg NJ, Jakas MCQ (2006) Simulating soil C dynamics with EPIC: model description and testing against long-term data. Ecol Model 192:362–384
Williams JR, Jones CA, Kiniry JR, Spanel DA (1989) The EPIC crop growth model. Trans ASAE 32:497–511
Kiniry JR, Sanderson MA, Williams JR et al (1996) Simulating Alamo switchgrass with the ALMANAC model. Agron J 88:602–606
Kiniry JR, Cassida KA, Hussey MA et al (2005) Switchgrass simulation by the ALMANAC model at diverse sites in the southern US. Biomass Bioenerg 29:419–425
Kiniry JR, Schmer MR, Vogel KP, Mitchell RB (2008) Switchgrass biomass simulations at diverse sites in the northern great plains of the US. Bioenerg Res 1:259–264
McLaughlin SB, Kiniry JR, Taliaferro CM, De La Torre Ugarte D (2006) Projecting yield and utilization potential of switchgrass as an energy crop. Adv Agron 90:267–297
Monteith JL (1977) Climate and the efficiency of crop production in Britain. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B 281:277–294
Kiniry JR, Bean B, Xie Y, Chen P (2004) Maize yield potential: critical processes and simulation modeling in a high-yielding environment. Agric Syst 82:45–56
Kiniry JR, Johnson MVV, Bruckerhoff SB, Kaiser JU, Cordsiemon RL, Harmel RD (2011) Clash of the titans: comparing productivity via radiation use efficiency for two grass giants of the biofuel field. Bioenerg Res. doi:10.1007/s12155-011-9116.8
Warner DA, Ku MSB, Edwards GE (1987) Photosynthesis, leaf anatomy, and cellular constituents in the polyploid C4 grass Panicum virgatum. Plant Phys 84:461–466
Kiniry JR, Tischler CR, van Esbroeck GA (1999) Radiation use efficiency and leaf CO2 exchange for diverse C4 grasses. Biomass Bioenerg 17:95–112
Madakadze IC, Stewart K, Peterson PR, Coulman BE, Samson R, Smith DL (1998) Light interception, use-efficiency, and energy yield of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L) grown in a short season area. Biomass Bioenerg 15:475–482
Heaton EA, Dohleman FC, Long SP (2008) Meeting US biofuel goals with less land: the potential of miscanthus. Glob Change Biol 14:1–15
Sinclair TR, Muchow RC (1999) Radiation use efficiencyRadiation use efficiency. Adv Agron 65:215–265
Hall RL (2003) Grasses for energy production hydrological guidelines. B/CR/00783/Guidelines/Grassesurn 03/882. Department of Trade and Industry, New and Renewable Energy Programme—Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, London, UK
Stout WL, Jung GA, Shaffer JA (1988) Effects of soils and nitrogen on water-use efficiency of tall fescue and switchgrass under humid conditions. Soil Sci Soc Am J 52:429–434
Stout WL (1992) Water-use efficiency of grasses as affected by soil, nitrogen, and temperature. Soil Sci Soc Am J 56:897–902
Hickman GC, Vanloocke A, Dohleman FG, Bernacchi CJ (2010) A comparison of canopy evapotranspiration for maize and two perennial grasses identified as potential bioenergy crops. Glob Change Biol Bioenerg 2:157–168
Good AG, Shrawat AK, Muench DG (2004) Can less yield more? Is reducing nutrient input into the environment compatible with maintaining crop production? Trends Plant Sci 9:597–605
Jorgensen U, Schelde K (2001) Energy crop water and nutrient use efficiency. SRC IEA Bioenergy Task 17, International Energy Agency, Tjele, Denmark
Staley TE, Stout WL, Jung GA (1991) Nitrogen use by tall fescue and switchgrass on acidic soils of varying water holding capacity. Agron J 83:732–738
Ma Y, An Y, Shui J, Sun Z (2011) Adaptability evaluation of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) cultivars on the loess plateau of China. Plant Sci 181:638–643
Huang Y, Rickerl DH, Kephart KD (1996) Recovery of deep-point injected soil nitrogen-15 by switchgrass, alfalfa, ineffective alfalfa, and corn. J Environ Qual 25:1394–1400
Stout WL, Jung GA (1995) Biomass and nitrogen accumulation in switchgrass: effects of soil and environment. Agron J 87:663–669
Martinez-Reyna JM, Vogel KP, Caha C, Lee DJ (2001) Meiotic stability, chloroplast DNA polymorphisms, and morphological traits of upland x lowland switchgrass reciprocal hybrids. Crop Sci 41:1579–1583
Awada T, Moser LE, Schacht WH, Reece PE (2002) Stomatal variability of native warm-season grasses from the Nebraska Sandhills. Can J Plant Sci 82:349–355
Zhang Y, Zalapa J, Jakubowski AR, Price DL et al (2011) Natural hybrids and gene flow between upland and lowland switchgrass. Crop Sci 51:1–16
Nickell GL (1973) The physiological ecology of upland and lowland Panicum virgatum. Ph.D Dissertation, University of Oklahoma
Stroup JA, Sanderson MA, Muir JP, McFarland MJ, Reed RL (2003) Comparison of growth and performance in upland and lowland switchgrass types to water and nitrogen stress. Bioresour Technol 86:65–72
Porter CL (1966) An analysis of variation between upland and lowland switchgrass, Panicum virgatum L, in central Oklahoma. Ecology 47:980–992
Sanderson MA, Reed RL (2000) Switchgrass growth and development: water, nitrogen, and plant density effects. J Range Manage 53:221–227
Byrd GT, May PA II (2000) Physiological comparisons of switchgrass cultivars differing in transpiration efficiency. Crop Sci 40:1271–1277
Knapp AK (1985) Effect of fire and drought on the ecophysiology of andropogon gerardii and Panicum virgatum in a tallgrass prairie. Ecology 66:1309–1320
Heckathorn SA, Delucia EH (1994) Drought-induced nitrogen retranslocation in perennial C4 grasses of tallgrass prairie. Ecology 75:1877–1886
Alderson J, Sharp WC (1995) Grass varieties in the United States. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Greub LJ, Drolsom PN, Rohweder DA (1983) Salt tolerance of grasses and legumes for roadside use. Agron J 77:76–80
Dkhili M, Anderson B (1990) Salt effects on seedling growth of switchgrass and big bluestem. Proceedings of the twelfth North American prairie conference. Cedar Falls, Iowa, 5–9 Aug 1990
Kim S, Rayburn AL, Voigt T, Parrish A, Lee DK (2011) Salinity effects on germination and plant growth of prairie cordgrass and switchgrass. Bioenerg Res. doi:10.1007/s12155-011-9145-3
Stout WL, Jung GA, Shaffer JA (1998) Effects of soil and nitrogen on water use efficiency of tall fescue and switchgrass under humid conditions. Soil Sci Soc Am J 52:429–434
Thomason WE, Raun WR, Johnson GV et al (2004) Switchgrass response to harvest frequency and time and rate of applied nitrogen. J Plant Nutr 27:1199–1226
Suplick MR, Read JC, Matuson MA, Johnson JP (2002) Switchgrass leaf appearance and lamina extension rates in response to fertilizer nitrogen. J Plant Nutr 25:2115–2127
MacAdam JW, Volenec JJ, Nelson CJ (1989) Effects of nitrogen on mesophyll cell division and epidermal cell elongation in tall fescue leaf blades. Plant Physiol 89:549–556
Gastal F, Nelson CJ (1994) Nitrogen use within the growing leaf blade of tall fescue. Plant Physiol 105:191–197
Engels C, Marschner H (1995) Plant uptake and utilization of nitrogen. In: Bacon PE (ed) Nitrogen fertilization in the environment. Dekker, New York
Brejda JJ (2000) Fertilization of native warm-season grasses. In: Anderson BE, Moore KJ (eds) CSSA special pub no. 30. Native warm-season grasses: research trends and issues, Crop Science Society of America, Madison
Lemus R (2004) Switchgrass as an energy crop: fertilization, cultivar, and cutting management. PhD Dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
Mills HA, Jones JB Jr (1996) Plant analysis handbook II. Micro Macro Publishing, Athens
Marschner H (1995) Nutrition of higher plants, 2nd edn. Academic Press, San Diego
Brejda JJ, Moser LE, Vogel KP (1998) Evaluation of switchgrass rhizosphere microflora for enhancing seedling yield and nutrient uptake. Agron J 90:753–758
Wullschleger SD, Sanderson MA, McLaughlin SB, Biradar DP, Rayburn AL (1996) Photosynthetic rates and ploidy levels among populations of switchgrass. Crop Sci 36:306–312
Acknowledgments
Support for Stan D. Wullschleger and S. Surendran Nair was provided by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, Biological and Environmental Research. Oak Ridge National Laboratory is managed by UT-Battelle, LLC for the U.S. Department of Energy under contract DE-05-00OR22725.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2012 Springer-Verlag London
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Zegada-Lizarazu, W., Wullschleger, S.D., Surendran Nair, S., Monti, A. (2012). Crop Physiology. In: Monti, A. (eds) Switchgrass. Green Energy and Technology. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-2903-5_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-2903-5_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, London
Print ISBN: 978-1-4471-2902-8
Online ISBN: 978-1-4471-2903-5
eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)