Abstract
Watson (1913) noted that “Psychology, as the behaviorist views it, is a purely objective, experimental branch of natural science, which needs introspection as little as do the sciences of chemistry and physics. It is granted that the behavior of animals can be investigated without appeal to consciousness. …The position is taken here that the behavior of man and the behavior of animals must be considered on the same plane; as being equally essential to a general understanding of behavior. It can dispense with consciousness in a psychological sense. The separate observation of ‘states of consciousness’ is, on this assumption, no more a part of the task of the psychologist than of the physicist. We might call this the return of a nonreflective and naïve use of consciousness. In this sense, consciousness may be said to be the instrument or tool with which all scientists work. Whether or not the tool is properly used at present by scientists is a problem for philosophy and not for psychology (p. 176).” We see the foundation of separation of psychology and philosophy being laid in such assertions by established psychologists of those days. Watson (1913) worked hard to make psychology a science like other sciences, which can be seen in the following quote: “This suggested elimination of states of consciousness as proper objects of investigation in themselves will remove the barrier from psychology, which exists between it and the other sciences. The findings of psychology become the functional correlates of structure and lend themselves to explanation in physico-chemical terms (p. 177).” Thus, the journey for psychology to go away from philosophy and to become a part of natural science began during the turn of the last century, and scholars were willing to go to the extent of eliminating consciousness and cognition from psychology, which is now trying to find its way back with marginal success.
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Notes
- 1.
To me nididhyAsana means translating the learned ideas into practice. Ramana Maharshi encouraged his disciples to live in the world and apply this three-pronged process. So it is not about getting out of the society and meditating deeply about our true form (i.e., we are Atman), but to live in the world and practice every moment being aware that we are Atman (Osborne, 1970). abhyAs (or practice) and vairAgya (or detachment) are the two additional practices added to this three pronged introspective tool as noted in verse 6.35 of the bhagavadgItA.
- 2.
Western scholars often differentiate between morality and ethics, whereas in the Indian context, dharma covers both [Chaitanya, Personal communication (2009)].
- 3.
Both Vijayan and Anand do not think that “polishing” captures the spirit of what I am saying. Scriptures are known for offering their teaching in sutra (or aphorism) form where the beginning and end states are mentioned and the details of the process omitted. Often a commentator or bhASyakAr explicates the process sometimes by bringing other constructs and, at other times, by giving examples. What is being done in the polished model is similar to what a bhASyakAr does. For example, I explain how goal setting, a well-established psychological construct in Western psychology, mediates desires and anger. Anand thinks it may be better to call it an explicated model [Chandrasekar, Personal Communication (2009)]. Vijayan Munusamy [Personal Communication (2009)], on the other hand, noted that what is being done under the label of “polished to fit” is akin to what is referred to as “theoretical sensitivity” in grounded theory when a researcher uses his or her personal and temperamental bent as well as theoretical insights to create a theory that fits the data (Glaser & Strauss, 1967, pp. 46–47). I think both perspectives together capture the process of polishing the model extracted from the scripture as the researcher is being a bhASyakAr and in being that brings his or her theoretical sensitivity to the process of polishing the extracted model.
- 4.
There is some discussion in the literature about whether or not smRtivibhrama and smRtibhramZa are two concepts, especially since Adi zankara did not interpret them as two concepts in his commentary on the bhagavadgItA. I take the position that they are two different concepts; smRtivibhrama originates from the root bhramati meaning wander, whereas smRtibhramZa is derived from the root bhras meaning destruction. Thus, smRtivibhrama means restlessness or unsteadiness of memory, or simply one is disarranged, bewildered, perplexed, or confused. On the other hand, smRtibhramZa means decline or decay of memory, or simply ruined memory.
- 5.
A question can be raised if fulfillment of goals invariably leads to greed, which is negative. What about ambition to excel in something or non-selfish goals like desire to help others? It is my understanding that all desires invariably lead to greed, since enlightenment means flowing with the universe and serving people without having any desire for oneself. The moment there is self, there is desire and, therefore, greed. The selfless person has no desire. The enlightened person has no desire, not even to fight for the freedom of nation. One would think that the pastors and ministers of Christian churches are motivated by serving others, but research evidence shows that they have one of the highest rates of burnout among all professions (Chun,2006; Grosch & Olsen, 2000). Clearly, too much of social service can also lead to stress and burnout. Other examples can be found in the scriptures. For example, arjuna’s desire to be the best archer led him to complain to guru droNa, which culminated in ekalavya losing his thumb. The contest between karNa and arjuna was a result of both trying to be the best archer of their time. So, excellence and ambition inherently lead to competition and result in greed sooner or later.
- 6.
Verse 3.14: annAdbhavanti bhUtAni parjanyAdannasambhavaH; yajnAdbhavati parjanyo yajnaH karmasamudbhavaH.
- 7.
Verse 3.15: karma brahmodbhavaM viddhi brahmAkSarsamudbhavam; tasmAtsarvagataM brahma nityaM yajne pratiSThitam.
- 8.
A friend noted if this entire argument or model should find a place in the paper. He thought that while what kRSNa said must have made perfect sense to the people of his time, concepts like yajnAd bhavati parjanyaH are difficult for the modern mind to accept. I thought similarly, so I can relate to the argument. During my sabbatical in New Zealand in October 2002, I was studying the bhagavadgItA, and one day I thought that yajna could not cause rain. And that same day, a visiting anthropologist happened to present about Native Americans’ practice of going in solitude to pray for rain and doing what is referred to as rain dance. After his presentation, I asked him if he believed the shamans predicted rain or made rain, and he responded that what he believed did not matter. The Native Americans believed that the shamans made rain. I stopped questioning the connection between rain and yajna from that point on. More recently in October 2009, I was reading the biography of Sri Ramana Maharshi (Osborne, 1970), and I came across a story that supports such mystical connection between yajna and rain. “The mystery of Arunachala Hill also has become more accessible. There were many formerly who felt nothing of its power, for whom it was just a hill of rock and earth and shrubs like any other. Mrs. Taleyarkhan, a devotee mentioned in the previous chapter, was sitting once on the hill with a guest of hers, talking about Sri Bhagavan. She said: “Bhagavan is a walking God and all our prayers are answered. That is my experience. Bhagavan says this hill is God Himself. I cannot understand all that, but Bhagavan says so, so I believe it.” Her friend, a Muslim in whom the courtly Persian traditions of culture still lingered, replied, “According to our Persian beliefs I would take it as a sign if it rained.” Almost immediately there was a shower and they came down the hill drenched to tell the story (Osborne, 1970, p. 192).” Thus, I am open to the correlation between prayer or yajna and rain.
- 9.
agnau prAstAhutiH samyagAdityamupatiZThate; AdityAjjAyate vRSTirvRSTerannaM tataH prajAH (Manusmriti 3.76). The offering given properly to fire is placed in Sun; Sun causes rain, rain causes grains, and from grains come people.
- 10.
It is plausible that actions dedicated to God and niSkAma karma are not the same. In the early phase of cultivating niSkAma karma, I remember dedicating my work to God, as if to convince myself that I was not the doer and I was not concerned about the fruits. In hindsight, actions dedicated to God are a far cry from doing niSkAma karma. niSkAma karma is similar to carrying out the will of God and knowing that it is not one’s own desire to perform the action. In the early phases of sAdhanA (or spiritual practice), sometimes we rationalize our desires as God’s will.
- 11.
All personality theories listed in Wikipedia are by Western scholars, namely, Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Gordon Allport, B.F. Skinner, Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck, George Kelly, Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Lewis Goldberg, John Holland, Heinz Kohut, Karen Horney, Meyer Friedman, and Richard Herrnstien among others. This provides face validity that personality is a Western construct. When people use terms like Islamic Personality or Buddhist Personality they are simply using a pseudoetic approach to study human psychology using the construct of personality.
- 12.
The more the non-prime numbers are involved, the smaller is the GCF. Since prime numbers cannot be factored, the GCF for prime numbers is simply a multiplication of all the prime numbers in the set.
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Bhawuk, D.P.S. (2011). Toward a New Paradigm of Psychology. In: Spirituality and Indian Psychology. International and Cultural Psychology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-8110-3_10
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