Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Deposition Technologies of Materials for Cu-Interconnects

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Copper Interconnect Technology

Scaling of the feature size from 250 nm to sub-100 nm has restricted the use of aluminum (Al) interconnects. At the same time demands for higher speed, better performance of the scaled circuits, and thinner gate material need better dielectric materials other than silicon dioxide (SiO2). As a result, copper has replaced Al-interconnect and low-K interlayer and high-K gate dielectric materials have replaced SiO2. Deep submicron copper interconnects cannot be formed by using the conventional cloisonné approach which is ubiquitous in Al metallization. Experimental evidence shows that dry etching of Cu is difficult and photoresist work cannot withstand the temperatures required for Cu-etching (>200 ºC). Moreover, wet etching and lift-off techniques of Cu have been attempted without much success. So a new process technology known as the damascene process has been introduced to integrate Cu-interconnects in modern integrated circuits (ICs).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. International technology roadmap for semiconductors (ITRS), (2001) and also S.R. Riedel, S.E. Schulz, and T. Gessner, Microelectron. Eng., 50, 503 (2000), N.F. Wu et al., PECVD Ti-TiNx barrier with multilayered amorphous structure of high thermal stability for Cu-metallization, Electrochem. Solid State Lett., 6 (2), 6–27 (2003), and Y.J. Mei et al., Thin Solid Films, 308, 594 (1997), and J. Hu et al., Thin Solid Films, 308, 589 (1997)

    Google Scholar 

  2. R. Roger et al., J. Electrochem. Soc., 146 (9), 3248–3256 (1999) and also B. Chin, Solid State Technol., 41, 141 (1998)

    Google Scholar 

  3. J. Hopwood (ed.), Ionized physical vapor deposition, Academic Press, San Diego, CA, (2000) and S.-H. Kim et al., Electrochem. Solid State Lett., 11 (5), H-127 (2008)

    Google Scholar 

  4. J. Werner, H.P. Strunk, and H.W. Schock (eds.), Low Temperature deposition of microcrystalline silicon by microwave plasma enhanced sputtering in polycrystalline semiconductors, Schwabisch Gmund, Germany, (1998)

    Google Scholar 

  5. L. Chin and T. Ritzdorf, Semicond. Fabr., 12th ed. (July, 2000) and also M.H. Tsai, S.C. Sun, H.T. Chiu, C.E. Tsai, and S.H. Chuang, Appl. Phys. Lett., 67, 1128 (1995)

    Google Scholar 

  6. L.B. Freund and S. Suresh, Thin Film materials, Chapter 1, Cambridge university Press, London, (2003) and J.W. Christian, The theory of transformation in metals and alloys, Pergamon Press, London, (1965) and also K. Maex et al., J. Appl. Phys., 98, 8793 (2003)

  7. C.V. Thompson, Structural evolution during processing of polycrystalline films, Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci., 30, 159–190 (2000) and also A.R. Grone, Current induced marker motion in copper, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 28, 347–350 (1962)

    Google Scholar 

  8. H.H. Yu, M.Y. He, and J.W. Hutchinson, Edge effects in thin film delamination, Acta Mater., 49, 93–107 (2001) and also D.S. Campbell, Mechanical properties of thin films, In L.I. Maissel and R. Glang (eds.), Chapter 12, McGraw Hill, New York, (1983)

  9. R.H. Dauskardt, M. Lane, Q. Ma, and N. Krishna, Adhesion and de-bonding of multilayer thin film structures, Eng. Fract. Mech., 61, 141–162 (1998) and also K.L. Chopra, Thin film phenomena, McGraw Hill, New York, (1969)

    Google Scholar 

  10. L.B. Freund and S. Suresh, Thin film materials, p. 571, Cambridge University Press, London, (2003) and also G.A. Bassett, J.W. Menter, and D.W. Pashley, In C.A. Neugebaur, J.B. Newkirk and D.A. Vermilyea (eds.), Structure and properties of thin films, John Wiley, New York (1959) and also V. Sukarev, E. Zschech, and W.D. Nix, J. Appl. Phys., 102, 053505-1-14 (2007)

    Google Scholar 

  11. S. Wolf and R.N. Tauber, Silicon processing for VLSI era Vol-I, p. 185, Lattice Press, Sunset Beach, CA, (1986)

    Google Scholar 

  12. M.L. Green and R.A. Levy, Chemical vapor deposition for metals for integrated circuit applications, J. Met., 37, 63 (1985) and also J.M.E. Harper, C. Cabral, P.C. Andricacos, L. Gignac, I.C. Noyan, K.P. Rodbell, and C.K. Hu, J. Appl. Phys., 86, 2516 (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  13. T.P. Moffat et al., Superconformal electrodeposition of copper in 500–90 nm features, J. Electrochem. Soc., 147 (12), 4524–4535 (2000) and also T.P. Moffat, J.E. Bonevich, W.H. Huber, A. Stanishevski, D.R. Kelly, G.R. Stafford.

    Google Scholar 

  14. J.M. Poate, K.N. Tu, and J.W. Mayer, Thin films interdiffusion and reactions, Wiley, New York, (1978)

    Google Scholar 

  15. J.A. Nucci, R.R. Keller, J.E. Sancez, Jr., and Y.S. Diamond, Local crystallographic texture and voiding in passivated interconnects, Appl. Phys. Lett., 69 (26), 4017 (1996)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. T.K. Gupta, Hand book of thick and thin film microelectronics, Chapter 5, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, (2003)

    Book  Google Scholar 

  17. J.A. Hopwood, Ionized Physical Vapor Deposition, Academic Press, San Diego, (2000) and also D.M. Mattox, Hand book of physical vapor deposition, W. Andrew Pub./Noyes, Park Ridge, NJ, (1998)

    Google Scholar 

  18. K.L. Lai, Ionized hollow cathode magnetron sputtering, p. 95, In J.A. Hopwood, Ionized physical vapor deposition, Academic Press, San Diego, (2000) and also R.F. Bunshah, Hand book of deposition technology and applications, 2nd ed. Noyes Pub., Park ridge, NJ, (1994)

    Google Scholar 

  19. M.D. Allendorf, F. Maury, and F. Teyssandier, Chemical vapor deposition, Vol. 14, The electrochemical Soc. Pub. Pennigton, NJ, (2003)

    Google Scholar 

  20. D.C. Bradley, R.C. Mehrotra, and D.P. Gaur, Metal alkoxides, Academic Press, New York, (1998)

    Google Scholar 

  21. J. Huo and R. Solanki, Characteristics of copper films produced via atomic layer deposition, J. Mater. Res., 17 (9), 2394 (2002) and also P.K. Roy and I.C. Kizilyalli, Appl. Phys. Lett., 72, 2835 (1998)

    Google Scholar 

  22. S.A. Campbell, D.C. Glimmer, X. Wang, M.T. Hsich, H.S. Kim, W.L. Glandfelter, and J.H. Yan, IEEE Trans. Electron Dev., 44, 104 (1997)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. M. Copel, M.A. Gribelyuk, and E. Gusev, Appl. Phys. Lett., 76, 436 (2000)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. B.H. Lee, L.Kang, R. Nich, W.J. Qi, and J.C. Lee, Appl. Phys. Lett., 76, 1926 (2000)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. J. Sundqvist, H. Hogberg, and A. Harsta, Atomic layer deposition of Ta2O5 using the TaI5 and O2 precursor combination, Adv. Mater., 15 (20), 245–248 (2003)

    Google Scholar 

  26. A.J. Bard and L.R. Faulkner, Electrochemical methods, 2nd ed. Wiley, New York, (2001) and also G.M. Milazzo, Electrochemistry, Elsevier Pub., Amsterdam, (1963)

    Google Scholar 

  27. P.M. Hoffman, A. Radisic, and P.C. Searson, Growth Kinetics for copper Deposition on Si (100) from Pyrophosphate Solution, J. Electrochem. Soc., 147 (7), 2576 (2000) and also F.A. Lowenheim, Modern electroplating, Wiley, New York, (1963)

    Google Scholar 

  28. Y. Cao, P. Taephaisitphongse, R. Chalupa, and A. West, Three additive model of superfilling, J. Electrochem. Soc. 148(7), C466 (2001) and also A. Brenner, Electrodeposition of alloys, Vol. 1, 2, Academic press, New York, (1963)

    Google Scholar 

  29. J.M. West, Electrodeposition and corrosion processes, D. Van Nostrand, Co., Princeton, NJ, (1965) and also T. Moffat et al., Superconformal electrodeposition of copper in 500–90 nm features, J. Electrochem. Soc., 147 (12), 4524 (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  30. M. Faraday, Experimental relations of gold to light, Phil. Trans., 147, 145 (1857)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. J. Duffy, L. Pearson, and M. Paunovic, The effect of pH on electroless copper deposition, J. Electrochem. Soc., 130 (4), 876 (1983)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. H.S. Nalwa (ed.), Encyclopedia of nanoscience and nanotechnology, Am. Scientific Pub., Stevenson Ranch, CA, (2003)

    Google Scholar 

  33. H. Hu, J. Jacobs, L. Su, and D. Antoniadis, A study of deep submicron MOSFET scaling based on experiment and simulation, IEEE Trans. Electron. Dev., ED-43 (4), 669 (1996)

    Google Scholar 

  34. C.A. Neugebauer, Condensation, nucleation and growth of thin films, In Hand book of thin film technology, L.I. Maissel and R. Glang (eds.), Chapter 8, McGraw Hill, New York, (1983) and also C. Ji, G. Oskam, and P.C. Searson, Electrochemical nucleation and growth of copper on Si (111), Surf. Sci., 492, 115 (2001)

  35. S.M. Rossnagel, Thin solid films, 263, 1–12 (1995) and H. Sakai et al., Adv. Meter. Conf. September 26, The University of Tokyo, Japan (2006)

    Google Scholar 

  36. S.N. Wolf and R.N. Tauber, Silicon processing, Vol. I, p. 368, Lattice Press, Sunset Beach, CA, (1886) and also I.A. Bleach, Step coverage by vapor deposited thin aluminum films, Solid State Technol., 26 (12), 123 Dec. (1983)

    Google Scholar 

  37. S.J. Lee et al., IEEE Tech. Dig. Int. Div. Meet., 31, (2000) and also A.E. Kaloyeros, A. Feng, J. Garhart, K.C. Brooks, S.K. Ghosh, A.N. Saxena, and F. Luehrs, Low temperature MOCVD of device quality copper films for microelectronic applications, J. Electron. Mater., 19, 271 (1990)

    Google Scholar 

  38. S.M. George, A.W. Ott, and J.W. Klaus, Surface chemistry for atomic layer growth, J. Phys. Chem., 100, 1321 (1996) and S.H. Kim et al., J. Electrochem. Soc., 154, D-435 (2007)

    Google Scholar 

  39. J.W. Klaus, S.J. Ferro, and S.M. George, Atomic layer deposition of tungsten using sequential surface chemistry with sacrificial stripping reactions, Thin Solid Films, 360, 145 (2000)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. K. Ueno, T. Ritzorf, and S. Grace, J. Appl. Phys., 86 (9), 4930 (1999) and also A.A. Volinsky et al., Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc., 649, (2000) and H. Lee and S.D. Lopatin, Thin Solid Films, 192 (1–2), 279 (Dec, 2005)

    Google Scholar 

  41. R.A. Schwartz, Chem. Mater., 9, 2325 (1997)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. R. Krumm, J.G. Long, A. Natarajan, and P.C. Pearson, J. Appl. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., 31, 1 (1998), and also C.A. Neugebauer, Condensation, nucleation, and growth of thin film, In L.I. Maissel and L.I. Glang (eds.), Handbook of Thin Film Technology, Chapter 8, p. 5, McGraw Hill, New York, (1983)

  43. E.K. Broadbent, Nucleation and growth of chemically vapor deposited tungsten on various substrate materials: A review, J. Vac. Sci. Technol., B5 (6), 1661 (Nov. Dec., 1987) and also H. Dobberstein and R.W. Schwartz, Modeling the nucleation and growth behavior of solution derived thin films, Symp. On Adv. Mater. For next generation, Integrated materials, AIST Chubu, Nagoya, Japan, (May 27, 2002)

    Google Scholar 

  44. D.M. Brown D. Gorowitz, P. Piacente, R. Saia, R. Willson, and D. Woodruff, IEEE Trans. Electron. Dev. Lett., 8, 55 (1987)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. R.S. Blewer (ed.), Tungsten and other refractory metals for VLSI applications, Mat. Res. Soc., MRS Pub., Pittsburgh, PA, (1986) and also T. Smy, K.L. Westra, and M.J. Brett, IEEE Trans. Electron. Dev., 37 (3), 591 (1990)

    Google Scholar 

  46. S. Swirhun, K.C. Saraswatand, and R.M. Swanson, IEEE Trans. Electron. Dev. Lett., 5, 209 (1984)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. S.S. Chen, S. Sivaram, and R.K. Shukla, Properties of TiSi2 as an encroachment barrier for the growth of selective tungsten on Si, J. Vac. Sci. Technol., B5 (6), 1730–1735 (Nov./Dec., 1987)

    Google Scholar 

  48. W.K. Burton, N. Cabrera, and F.C. Frank, Phil. Trans. R. Soc., A243, 299–358 (1951) and also M.K. Gobbert, T. Merchant, L.J. Borucki, and T.S. Cale, J. Electrochem. Soc., 1444 (1), 3945 (1997)

    Google Scholar 

  49. J.W. Cahn, Acta Metal., 8, 534–561 (1960), and also L.J. Friedick, S.K. Dew, M.J. Brett, and T. Smy, Thin Solid Films, 266, 83 (1995)

    Google Scholar 

  50. G.W. Sears, Acta. Metal., 12, 1421–1439 (1964) and also Z. Wong, Y. Li, and J.B. Adams, Kinetic lattice monte Carlo simulation of facet growth rate, Surf. Sci., 450, 51 (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  51. S.P. Murarka and M.C. Peckerar, Electronic material science and technology, p. 363, Academic press, San Diego, CA, (1989)

    Google Scholar 

  52. M.H. Grabow and G.H. Gilmer, Surf. Sci., 194, 333 (1988)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. B. Lewis and A.C. Anderson, Nucleation and growth of thin films, Academic press, New York, (1978)

    Google Scholar 

  54. W.A. Tiller, Fundamental aspects of film nucleation and growth, J. Vac. Sci. Tech., A7 (3), 1353, (May/June, 1989) and also R.W. Schwartz, J.A. Voigt, B.A. Tuttle, R.S. DaSalla, and D.A. Pyne, J. Mater. Res., 12, 444 (1997)

    Google Scholar 

  55. R.A. Broglia, The color of metal clusters and atomic nuclei, Contemporary Phys., 35 (2), 95–104 (1994) and also M. Bernath, C. Yannouleas, and R.A. Brogila, Phys. Rev. Lett., A156, 307 (1991)

    Google Scholar 

  56. W.A. de Heer, Rev. Mod. Phys., 65, 611 (1993) and also H. Haberland, Clusters of atoms and molecules, Springer, Berlin, (1994) and E. Barborini, P. Peseri, A. Li, Bassi, A.C. Ferrari, C. Bottani, and P. Milani, Chem. Phys. Lett., 300, 633 (1999)

    Google Scholar 

  57. T.P. Martin, In Elemental and molecular clusters, G. Benedek, T.P. Martin and G. Pacchioni (eds.) , p. 2, Springer, Berlin, (1988) and also M. Bruzzi, P. Piseri, E. Barborini, G. Benedek, and P. Milani, Diam. Relat. Mater., 10, 989 (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  58. A. Bohr and B.R. Mottleson, Nuclear structure Vol. II, Benjamin, Reading, MA, (1997)

    Google Scholar 

  59. I. Goldhirsch and G. Zanette, Phys. Rev. Lett., 70, 1619 (1993)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. F. Crick, What a mad pursuit, A personal view of science, Basic books Pub., NY (1988)

    Google Scholar 

  61. C. A Neugebauer, Condensation, nucleation, and growth of thin films, pp. 8–26, In L.I. Maissel and R. Glang, Handbook of thin films, McGraw Hill , New York, (1983) and also A.J. Melmed, J. Appl. Phys., 37, 275 (1966)

    Google Scholar 

  62. S.M. Hu, Defects in silicon substrate, J. Vac. Sci. Technol., 14 (1), 17–31 (Jan/Feb., 1977) and also M. Borner, S. Landau, S. Metz, and B.O. Kolbersen, In Crystalline defects and contamination: Their impact and control in device manufacturing II, B.O. Kolbersen, C. Claeys, P. Stallhofer, and F. Tardiff (eds.), PV 97-22, The Electrochemical Soc. Pub. Pennington, NJ, (1998)

    Google Scholar 

  63. W.A. Johnson and R.F. Mehl, Trans. AMIE, 135, 416 (1939) and also R.W. Schwartz, Chem. Mater., 9, 2325 (1997)

    Google Scholar 

  64. M. Avrami, J. Chem. Phys., 8, 212 (1940) and also M. Avrami, J. Chem. Phys., 9, 177 (1941)

    Google Scholar 

  65. K.N. Tu, IBM J. Res. Dev., 34 (6), 2671–2674 Nov. (1990) and also S.P. Murarka and M.C. Peckrar, Nucleation and growth, pp. 306, and 358 in Electronic materials for science and technology, Academic, San Diego, CA, (1989)

    Google Scholar 

  66. A. Bondi, Chem. Rev., 52, 417 (1953) and also B. Lewis and J.C. Anderson, Nucleation and growth of thin films, Academic, London, (1978)

    Google Scholar 

  67. C.A. Neugerbauer, Condensation, nucleation and growth of thin films, In L.I. Maissel and R. Glang, Hand book of thin film technology, Chapter 8, pp. 8–29, McGraw Hill, New York, (1983) and also C. Ratsch, A.P. Seitsonen, and M. Scheffler, Phys. Rev. B, 55, 6750 (1997)

  68. J.P. Hirth and G.M. Pound, J. Chem. Phys., 26, 1216 (1957), and also H. Brune, Surf. Sci. Rep., 31, 121 (1998)

    Google Scholar 

  69. R. Glang, Vacuum evaporation, In Hand book of thin film technology, L.I. Maissel and R. Glang, (eds.), Chapter 1, McGraw Hill, New York, (1983) and also K.A. Fichthorn and M. Scheffler, In Collective Diffusion on surfaces: Collective behavior and role of adatom interactions, M.C. Tringides and Z. Chvoj (eds.), Kluwer Pub., Dordrecht, Netherlands, (2001)

  70. J.P. Hirth and G.M. Pound, Condensation, and evaporation, nucleation and growth kinetics, The Macmillan Company, New York, (1963) and also D.M. Saylor, A. Morawiec, and G.S. Rohrer, Acta Mater., 51, 3663 (2003)

    Google Scholar 

  71. W. Primak, Phys. Rev., 100, 1677 (1955) and also X.W. Zhou and H.N.D. Wasley, J. Appl. Phys., 84, 2301 (1998) and D.L. Windt et al., Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc., 564, 307 (1999)

    Google Scholar 

  72. M.M. Mandurah, K.S. Saraswat, and T. Kamins, Appl. Phys. Letts., 36, 683 (1980) and also F. Nouvertne et al., Phys. Rev. B, 60, 14382 (1999)

    Google Scholar 

  73. V. Vand, Proc. R.. Soc. Lond., 55, 222 (1943) and also S. Hamaguchi and S.M. Rossnagel, J. Vac. Sci Technol., B14, 2603 (1994)

    Google Scholar 

  74. T.F. Retajczyk and A.K. Sinha, Thin Solid Films, 70, 241 (1980) and also K. Rajan, R. Roy, J. Trogolo, and J.J. Cuomo, Lowenergy ion beam assisted grain size evolution in thin film deposition, J. Electron. Mater., 26 (11), 1270 (1997)

    Google Scholar 

  75. J.E. Mahan, Physical vapor deposition of thin films, Wiley, New York, (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  76. S. Schiller, U. Heisg, and S. Panzer, Electron beam technology, 2nd ed. Verlag Technik GmbH, Berlin, (1955) and also J. Fu, P. Ding, F. Dorleans, Z. Xu, and F. Chen, J. Vac. Sci. Technol., 17 (5), 2830–2834 (1999)

    Google Scholar 

  77. B. Chapman, Glow discharge processes, Wiley, New York, (1980) and also J.P. Hopwood, Phys. Plasmas, 5, 1624 (1998)

    Google Scholar 

  78. G. Carter and J.S. Colligon, Ion bombardment of solids, Elsevier Pub., New York., (1968) and also T. Karabacak and T.M. Lu, Enhanced step coverage by oblique angle physical vapor deposition, J. Appl. Phys., 97, 124504 (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  79. E.S. Lame and K.T. Compton, Science, 80, 541 (1934) and also G.S. Chen et al., Evaluating substrate bias on phase forming behavior of tungsten thin films deposited by diode and ionized magnetron sputtering, Thin Solid Films, 484 (1–2), 83 (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  80. P. Clarke, US Patent No. 3616450, (26 Oct., 1971) and also E.S. Machlin, Materials science in microelectronics, Giro Pub., New York, (1995)

    Google Scholar 

  81. B. Chapman, Sputtering Chapter 6, In Glow discharge process, p. 201, Wiley, New York, (1980) and also J.A. Hopwood, Ionized physical vapor deposition, Thin Films, Vol. 27, Academic, Boston, MA (2000)

  82. S.N. Wolf and R.N. Tauber, Sputter deposition equipment, In Silicon Processing for VLSI era, Vol. I, p. 359, Lattice Press, CA, (1986) and also M. Malac, R. Egerton, and M. Brett, Vac. Technol. Coat, 2, 48 (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  83. I.A. Blech, D.B. Fraser, and S.E. Haszko, Optimization of Al-step coverage through computer simulation and SEM, J. Vac. Sci. Technol., 15, 1856 (1978) and also R.N. Tait, S.K. Dew, T. Smy, and M.J. Brett, J. Appl. Phys., 70, 4295 (1991)

    Google Scholar 

  84. W.D. Gill and E. Kay, Efficient low pressure sputtering in large inverted magnetron suitable for film synthesis, Rev. Sci. Instr., 36, 277 (1965) and also E. Klawuhn, G.C. D’Couto, K.A. Asthani, P. Rymer, M.A. Biberger, and K.B. Levy, Ionized physical vapor deposition using hollow-cathode magnetron source for advanced metallization, J. Vac. Sci. Technol., 18 (4), 1546 (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  85. G.K. Wehner and G.S. Anderson, The nature of physical sputtering, In Handbook of thin film technology, L.I. Maissel and R. Glang (eds.), Chapter 3, McGraw Hill, New York, (1970) and also J.A. Hopwood, The role of ionized physical vapor deposition in integrated circuit fabrication, Thin Films, 27, 1 (2000)

  86. K.N. Tu, Surface and interfacial energies of CoSi2 and Si films, IBM J. Res. Dev., 34 (6), 868 (Nov., 1990)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. J.A. Thorton and A.S. Penfold, Cylindrical magnetron sputtering in thin film processes, J.L. Vossen and W. Kern (eds.), p. 73, Academic Press, New York, (1978) and also J.C. Helmer, K.F. Lai, and R.L. Anderson, US patent 5482611, (Jan. 9, 1996) and also V. Girault, 9th Int. Workshop on Stress Induced Phenomena in Metallization, Kyoto, Japan, (April, 2007)

    Google Scholar 

  88. R.K. Waits, Planar magnetron sputtering in thin film processes, J.L. Vossen and W. Kern (eds.), p. 131, Academic Press, New York, (1978) and also F.B.D. Mongeot et al., Nanocrystalline formation and faceting instability, Phys. Rev. Lett., 91 (1), 016102-1 (2003)

    Google Scholar 

  89. C.Y. Ting, V.J. Vivalda, and M.G. Schaefer, J. Vac. Sci. Technol., 15, 1105 (1978) and also S.J. Liu, H.C. Huang, and C.H. Woo, Appl. Phys. Lett., 80, 3295 (2002)

    Google Scholar 

  90. S.M. Rossangel, C. Nichols, S. Hamaguchi, D. Ruzic, and R. Turkot, J. Vac. Sci. Technol., 14 (3), 1846–1852 (1996)

    Google Scholar 

  91. J.A. Hopwood, Phys. Plasmas, 5 (5), 1624 (1998) and also J.A. Hopwood, The role of ionized physical vapor deposition in integrated circuit fabrication, In J.A. Hopwood (ed.), Ionized Physical Vapor Deposition, Academic Press. San Diego, CA, (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  92. J. Forster, Applications and properties of ionized physical vapor deposition films, In J.A. Hopwood (ed.), Ionized physical vapor deposition, Academic Press, San Diego, CA, (2000) and also K. Tao, D. Mao, and J.A. Hopwood, J. Appl. Phys., 91 (7), 4040 (2002)

    Google Scholar 

  93. C.A. Nichols, S.M. Rossnagel, and S.Hamaguchi, J. Vac. Sci. Technol., B-14, 3270 (1996) and also C.F. Yeh, T.J. Chen, C.L. Fan, and J.S. Kao, J. Appl. Phys., 83, 1107 (1998)

    Google Scholar 

  94. H. Seifarth, R. Grotzschel, A. Markwitz, W. Matz, P. Nitzsche, and L. Rebohle, Thin Solid Films, 330, 202 (1998) and also B. Sun. Proc. MRS, on Adv. Metal. on ULSI applications, 137 (1977)

    Google Scholar 

  95. J. Mendonca et al., Proc. MRS on Adv. Metal. on ULSI applications, 741 (1977) and also E. Klawuhn et al., J. Vac. Sci. Technol., 18(4), 1546 (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  96. K.F. Lai, Ionized hollow cathode magnetic sputtering, In J.P. Hopwood (ed.), Ionized physical vapor deposition, Academic Press, San Diego, CA, (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  97. S.M. Rossnagel et al., J. Vac. Sci. Technol., B-14, 1819 (1996) and also E. Main, T. Karabacak, and T.M. Lu, Continum model for nanocolumn growth during oblique angle deposition, J. Appl. Phys., 95(8), 4346 (2004)

    Google Scholar 

  98. S.M. Rossangel and J.P. Hopwood, Appl. Phys. Lett., 63, 3285 (1993)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  99. S. Wickramanayaka, Y. Nakagawa, Y. Sago, and Y. Numaswa, J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A18, 823 (2000) and S-H. Kim et al., Electrochem. Solid State Lett., 11 (5), H-127 (2008)

    Google Scholar 

  100. K.H. Min, K.C. Chun, and K.B. Kim, J. Vac. Sci. Technol., B14 (5), 3263–3269 (1996)

    Google Scholar 

  101. G.S. Chen et al., Thin Solid Films, 484 (1–2), 83 (2005)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  102. S.M. Rossangel, C. Nichols, S. Hamaguchi, D. Ruzic, and R. Turkot, J. Vac. Sci. Technol., 14 (3), 1846–1852 (1996)

    Google Scholar 

  103. D.R. Cote et al., IBM J. Res. Dev., 43 (1/2), 5 (1999), and also S.R. Burgess, K.E. Buchanan, J. Cresswell, and I. Moncrief, Deposition and characterization of ionised PVD Ta and TaN barrier films for Cu-interconnects, Trikon Tech, Newport South Wales

    Google Scholar 

  104. M. Schieber et al., Thick film of X-ray polycrystalline mercuric iodide detectors, J. Cryst. Growth, 225, 118–123 (2001), and IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. T-NS 44, 2571 (1997) and also C.H. Kim et al., IEEE IITC, San Francisco, CA, (June, 2008)

    Google Scholar 

  105. C.H. Heimer and J.D. Lockard, Life, p. 6, Charles E. Merril Pub. Columbus, OH., (1977) and also M.L. Hitchman and E. Levy (eds.), Chemical vapor deposition, Wiley-VCH, Weinham, Germany, (2002)

    Google Scholar 

  106. M.S. Bishop, P.G. Lewis, and B. Sutherland, Earth history, p. 70, Charles E. Merril Pub. Columbus, OH., (1976) and also Y.P. Zhao, D.X. Ye, G.C. Wang, and T.M. Lu, Nano Lett., 2, 351 (2002)

    Google Scholar 

  107. W. Kern and V. Ban, Chemical vapor deposition of inorganic thin films, In thin film processes, J.L. Vossen and W. Kern (eds.), pp. 257–331, Academic Press. New York, (1978), and also H. Wolf, J. Rober, S. Riedel, R. Streiter, and T. Gessner, Process and equipment simulation of copper chemical vapor deposition using Cu (hfac) vtms, Microelectron. Eng., 45, 15 (1999)

    Google Scholar 

  108. W.A. Johnson, and R.H. Mehl, Trans. AMIE, 135, 416 (1939) and also K. Radhakrishnan, Ng. Geok-Ing, R. Gopalkrishnan, Mater. Sci. Eng., B-57, 224 (1999)

    Google Scholar 

  109. M. Avrami, J. Chem. Phys., 8, 212 (1940), 9, 177 (1941) and also J.C. Lin, G. Chen, H.T. Chin, C.E. Tsai, S.H. Chung, Aool., Phys. Lett., 67, 1128 (1995)

    Google Scholar 

  110. W. Kern and G.L. Schnable, Low pressure vapor deposition for VLSI processing, A review, IEEE Trans. Electron Dev., ED-26, 647 (1979) and also C. Klein, Chemical vapor deposition processes, In M. Meyyappan (ed.), Computational modeling in semiconductor processing, Artech House, Boston, MA (1995)

    Google Scholar 

  111. A. Learn, Modeling the reaction of low pressure chemical vapor deposition of SiO2, J. Chem. Soc., 132, 390 (Feb., 1985) and D.R. Cote et al., IBM J. Res. Dev., 43 (1/2), 5 (1999) and also S. Sankaran et al., IEEE IEDM Tech. Dig., Issue 6, p. 26 (2006)

    Google Scholar 

  112. G. Herbeke et al., Growth and physical properties of LPCVD polycrystalline Si- film, J. Electrochem. Soc., 131, 675 (1984) and also C.R. Klein and C. Werner, Modeling of chemical vapor deposition of tungsten films, Birkhauser, Basel, (1993)

    Google Scholar 

  113. N. Matsuki, J. Ohta, H. Fujika, M. Oshima, M. Yoshimoto, and H. Koinuma, Fabrication of oxide gate thin film transistors using PECVD/PLD multichamber system, Sci. Tech. Adv. Mater., 1, 187 (2000) and also M. Tesauro et al., AVS Symp. No. 54, Seattle, WA, (Oct., 2007)

    Google Scholar 

  114. F. Ay and A. Aydinli, Comparative investigation of hydrogen bonding in silicon based PECVD grown dielectrics for optical wave guides, Opt. Mater., 26, 33 (2004)

    Google Scholar 

  115. E. Eisenbraun et al., Gelest Inc. PA, and J. Sullivan, Integration of CVD-W and Ta based liners for Cu-metallization MKS Instr. Pub., Wilmington, MA 2000, and also Y. Golan, N.A. Alcantar, T.L. Kuhl, and J. Israelachrili, Langmuir, 16, 6955 (2000) and H.J. Wu, US Patent, 10/98007, (June, 2008)

    Google Scholar 

  116. W.F. Wu, K.L. Ou, C.P. Chou, and J.L. Hsu, PECVD-Ti/TiN barrier layer with multilayered amorphous structure and high thermal stability for copper metallization, Electrochem. Solid State Lett., 6 (2), G-27 (2003)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  117. A.L.S. Lok, C. Ryu, C.P. Yue, J.S. Cho, and S.S. Wong, Kinetics of copper drift in PECVD dielectrics, IEEE Electron. Dev. Lett., 17 (12), 549 (1996)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  118. W. Kern and V. Ban, Chemical vapor deposition of inorganic thin films, In thin film processes, J.L. Vossen and W. Kern, (eds.), pp. 257–331, Academic Press, New York, (1978) and also P. O’Brian, N.L. Pickett and D.J. Otway, Development of CVD delivery systems, Chem. Vapor Depos. Adv. Mater., 8 (6), 237 (2002), Wiley-VCH, Weinham, Germany

    Google Scholar 

  119. H.B. Nie et al., Structural and electrical properties of tantalum nitride thin films fabricated by using reactive radio-frequency magnetron sputtering, Appl. Phys., A73, 229 (2001) and also S. Wolf and R.N. Tauber, Silicon processing for VLSI era, Chapter 6, Lattice press, Sunset CA, (1986)

  120. M. Rand, Plasma promoted deposition of thin inorganic films, J. Vac. Sci. Technol., 16, 420 (1979) and also M. Rossnagel and J.P. Hopwood, Appl. Phys. Lett., 63, 3285 (1993) and J. Lu and M. Kushner, J. Appl. Phys., 89, 878 (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  121. E.K. broad bent, tungsten and other refractory metals for VLSI applications, Vol. 1&2, Mater. Res. Soc. Pub. Pittsburgh, PA, (1987), and also M.Y. Kwak, D.H. Sin, T.W. Kang, and K.N. Kim, Characteristics of WN diffusion barrier layer for copper metallization, Phys. Stat. Solids (a), 174, R5 (1999)

    Google Scholar 

  122. Y.S. Diamond and A. Dedhia, J. Electrochem. Soc., 140, 2427 (1993) and also R. Nokogaki, S. Nakai, S. Yamada, and T. Wada, J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A 16, 2827 (1998)

    Google Scholar 

  123. N. Kobayashi et al., J. Appl. Phys., 73 (9), 4637–4643 (2001)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  124. T.B. Gorczyea and B. Gorowitz, PECVD of dielectrics, In VLSI electronics microstructure science, N. Einspruch (ed.), Vol. 8, Chapter 4, Academic Press, New York, (1984)

    Google Scholar 

  125. M.H. Tsai, S.C. Sun, H.T. Chim, C.E. Tsai, and S.H. Chung, Appl. Phys. Lett., 67, 1128 (1995) and also C. Blaauw, Preparation and characterization of PECVD silicon nitride, J. Electrochem., 131, 1114 (May, 1984) and C.Y. Li et al., Thin Solid Films, 47 (1–2), 270–279 (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  126. C.H. Tseng et al., IEEE Electron Dev. Lett., 23, 333 (2002)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  127. J. Yota, M. Janani, L.E. Camilletti, A. Kar-Roy, Q.Z. Liu, C. Nguyen, and M.D. Woo, Proc. IEEE Electron Dev. Conf. San Francisco, CA, (2000) and also C.H. Hoon and Y.T. Kim, The effects of processing conditions and substrate on copper MOCVD using liquid injection of (hfac) Cu (vtmos), J. Electron. Mater., 30 (1), 27 (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  128. P. O’Brien, N.L. Pickett, and D.J. Otway, Developments in CVD delivery systems: A chemist prospective on the chemical and physical interactions between precursors, Adv. Mater., 8 (6), 237 (2002)

    Google Scholar 

  129. A.C. Jones and P. O’Brien, CVD of compound semiconductors, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, (1997) and also C. Dubourdiu, M. Rosina, H. Roussel, F. Weiss, J.P. Senateur, and J.L. Hodeau, Appl. Phys. Lett., 79, 1246 (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  130. H.C. Aspinall et al., Growth of praseodymium oxide films by liquid injection MOCVD using a novel praseodymium alkoxide precursor, Chem. Vapor Depos. Adv. Mater., 15 (20), 235 (2003), Wiley-VCU Pub., Weinheim, Germany

    Article  Google Scholar 

  131. P.A. Pecan, Science, 285, 2079 (1999) and J. Senawiratne et al., MRS Proc. Fall Symp. FF, (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  132. G.D. Wilk, R.M. Wallace, and J.M. Anthony, J. Appl. Phys., 89, 5243 (2001)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  133. A.C. Jones, J. Mater. Chem., 12, 2576 (2002)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  134. R. Kroger, M. Eizenberg, D. Cong, N. Yoshida, L. Chen, R. Ramaswami, and D. Carl, Properties of copper film prepared by Chemical vapor deposition for advanced metallization of microelectronics devices, J. Electrochem. Soc., 146 (9), 3248–3252, 1999

    Article  Google Scholar 

  135. K.K. Choi and S.W. Rhee, Effect of carrier gas on CVD of copper with hfac and DMB, J. Electrochem. Soc., 146(7), C-473–478 (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  136. H. Wolf, J. Rober, S. Riedel, R. Streiter, and T. Gessner, Process and equipment simulation of copper chemical vapor deposition using Cu (hfac) vtms, Micron. Eng., 45, 15 (1999)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  137. G.A. Person et al., J. Electrochem. Soc., 142 (3), 939 (1995) and K.K. Choi et al., Jpn. J. Appl. Phys., 41, 2902 (2002)

    Google Scholar 

  138. A.K. Jain, K.M. Chi, T.T. Kodas, and M.J. Hampdensmith, J. Electrochem. Soc., 140 (5), 1434 (1993) and also Y.K. Ko, B.S. Seo, D.S. Park, H.J. Jang, W.H. Lee, P.J. Reucroft, and J.G. Lee, Semicond. Sci. Technol., 17, 978 (2002)

    Google Scholar 

  139. H. Wolf, J. Rober, S. Riedd, R. Streiter, and T. Gessher, MOCVD Cu-films using hexafluoroactylactone venyl tetramethylsilane and argon, Microelectron. Eng., 45, 15 (1999)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  140. W.H. Lee et al., The effect of carrier gas and H (hfac) on MOCVD Cu-films using (hfac) Cu (1,5-COD) as a precursor, J. Electron. Mater., 30 (8), 3367–3369 (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  141. C.H. Jun and Y.T. Kim, The effects of process conditions and substrate on copper MOCVD using liquid injection of (hfac) Cu (vtmos), J. Electron Mater., 30 (1), 27–34 (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  142. J.B. Rem, J. Holleman, and J.F. Verweij, J. Electrochem. Soc., 144 (6), 2101 (1997)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  143. D.C. Bradley, R.C. Mehrotra, and D.P. Gaur, Metal alkoxides, Academic Press, New York, (1978)

    Google Scholar 

  144. D.B. Beach, F.K. LwGoues, and C.K. Hu, Chemical vapor deposition of high purity copper an organometallic source, Chem. Matter., 3, 216 (1990) and also P.M. Jefferies and G.S. Girolami, Chemical vapor deposition of copper and copper oxide thin films from copper (I) teri-butoxide, Chem. Matter., 1, 8 (1989)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  145. M. Schumacher, J. Lindner, P. Strzyzewski, M. Dauelsberg, and H. Juergensen, MOCVD processed ceramic thin film layers for future memory applications, Semicond. Fabtech, 11th ed., ICG Pub., UK, p. 227 (2000) and also C. Dubourdiu, M. Rosina, M. Audier, F. Weiss, J.P. Senateur, E. Dooryhee, and J.L. Hodeau, Thin Solid Films, 81, 400 (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  146. D.B. Beach, Design of low temperature thermal chemical vapor deposition processes, IBM J. Res. Dev., 34 (6), 800 (Nov., 1990) and also A.E. Kaloyeros et al., Low temperature metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (LTMOCVD) of device quality copper films for microelectronics applications, J. Electron. Mater., 19, 271 (1990)

    Google Scholar 

  147. J.M. Janiski, B.S. Meyerson, and B.A. Scott, Mechanistic studies of chemical vapor deposition, Annu. Phys. Chem., 38, 109 (1987) and also F.A. Cotton and T.J. Marks, Systematic preparation and characterization of pentahaptocyclopentadienyl, copper (I) compounds, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 92, 5114 (1970)

    Google Scholar 

  148. Preparation of alkylcopper compounds, J. Organomet. Chem., 12, 225 (1968) and also G. Dennler, A. Houdauer, Y. Segui, and M.R. Wertheimer, J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A 19, 2320 (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  149. D. Hausmann, J. Becker, S. Wang, and G. Gordon, Rapid vapor deposition of highly conformal silica nanolaminates, Science, 298, 402 (2002) and M.W. Thomson, Philos. Mag., 18, 377 (1968) and also S-H. Kim et al., Electrochem. Solid State Lett., 9, C54 (2006)

    Google Scholar 

  150. M. Lapedus, Support grows for atomic layer deposition schemes, EE Times, (Nov. 24, 2003)

    Google Scholar 

  151. M. Yamashita, J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A7, 151 (1989) and S.M. Rosengel, A. Sherman, and F.A. Turner, J. Vac. Sci. Technol., B-18, 2016 (2000) and also O.K. Kwon, H.S. Park, and S-W. Kang, J. Electrochem. Soc., 151 (12), C-753 (2004)

    Google Scholar 

  152. B.S. Lim, A. Rahtu, and R.G. Gordon, Atomic layer deposition of transition metals, Nature, 2, 749–754 (Nov., 2003)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  153. T. Sutola and M. Simpson (eds.), Atomic layer epitaxy, Blackie, Glasgow, (1990), and also C.Y. Li et al., Electron. Lett., 38, 1026 (2002)

    Google Scholar 

  154. M. Leskelä and M. Ritla, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 42, 5548 (2003), and also J.S. Park, M.J. Lee, C.S. Lee, and S.N. Kang, Electrochem. Soc. Solid State Lett., 4, C-17 (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  155. R.G. Gordon, D. Hausnann, E. Kim, and J. Shepard, Chem. Vap. Dep., 9, 73 (2003)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  156. J. Huo, R. Solank, and J.McAndrew, J. Mater. Res., 17(9), 2394 (2002) and also J.A. Hopwood, Ionized vapor deposition of integrated circuit interconnects, Phys. Plasmas, 5 (5), 1624 (May, 1998) and K. Ichinose et al., Adv. Metal. Conf. Sept-26, The Univ. of Tokyo, Japan, (2006)

    Google Scholar 

  157. T.K. Kodas and M.J. Hampdon-Smith, The Chem. Of Metal CVD, Chapter 4, VCH, New York, (1994), and also S. Lynne et al., Electrical and physical characterization of Atomic layer deposited thin films in copper barrier applications, Proc. Adv. Metal. Conf. Mater. Res. Soc., PA, (2002)

  158. J.D. Klaus, A.W. Ott, J.M. Johnson, and S.M. George, Atomic layer controlled growth of SiO2 films using binary reaction sequence chemistry, Appl. Phys. Lett., 70, 1092 (1997) and H. Kim et al., J. Appl. Phys., 98, 14308 (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  159. C.H. Peng et al., A 90 nm generation copper dual damascene technology with ALD TaN barrier, IEDM Proc. (2002) and C.H. Peng, C-H. Hsieh, and S. Lishue, US Patent 20050277, (Dec., 2005)

    Google Scholar 

  160. R.L. Puurunen, Growth per cycle in atomic layer deposition: A theoretical model, Adv. Mater., 15 (20), 243 (2003), Wiley-VCH Pub., Weinheim, Germany and D. Jeoung, H. Inoue, and H. Shinriki, IEEE IITC San Francisco, CA, (June, 2008)

    Google Scholar 

  161. S.M. George, A.W. Ott, and J.W. Klaus, Surface chemistry for atomic layer growth, J. Phys. Chem., 100, 1321–1331 (1996)

    Google Scholar 

  162. J. Huo, R. Solanki, and J. McAndrew, Characteristics of copper films produced via atomic layer deposition, J. Mater. Res., 17 (9), 2398 (2002)

    Google Scholar 

  163. R.G. Gordon, D. Hausmann, E. Kim, and J. Shepard, Kinetic model for step coverage by alternating layer deposition (ALD) in narrow hole and trenches, Chem. Vapor Depos., 9, 73–78 (2003)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  164. T.K. Gupta, Hand book of thick and thin film hybrid microelectronics, p. 2, Wiley, NJ., (2003)

    Book  Google Scholar 

  165. M. Ritala, P. Kalsi, D. Riihela, K. Kukli, M. Leskela, and Jokinen, J. Chem. Mater., 11, 1712 (1999) and S. Maitrejean et al., Adv. Metal. Conf. Sept. 26, The University of Tokyo, Japan, (2006)

    Google Scholar 

  166. J.S. Par, M.J. Lee, and S.W. Kang, Electrochem. Solid State Lett., 4, C-17 (2001)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  167. V.G. Levich, Physicochemical hydrodynamics, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliff, NJ, (1962)

    Google Scholar 

  168. K.R. Lawless, J. Vac. Sci. Technol., 2, 1 (1965), and also S. Goldbach, B.V. Den Bossche, T. Daenen, J. Deconinck, and F. Lapicque, Copper deposition on micro-patterned electrodes from an industrial acid copper plating bath, J. Appl. Chem., 30 (1), 1 (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  169. P.C. Andricacos, Electroplated copper wire on IC chips, The Electrochem. Soc. Interface Spring, p. 2, (1998) and W.S. Shue, IEEE IITC, p. 175, (2006)

    Google Scholar 

  170. D. Edelstein et al., International Electron. Dev. Meeting (IEDM), Washington DC, USA, (7–10 Dec.1997)

    Google Scholar 

  171. C.J. Coomb, Jr., Printed circuit board, 2nd ed. McGraw Hill, New York, (1988) and also J. Lee and J.B. Talbot, Simulation of particle incorporation during electrodeposition process, J. Electrochem. Soc., 152 (10), C706 (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  172. T.W. Dini, In Modern Electroplating, 3rd ed. F.A. Lowenheim (ed.), Wiley, New York, (1974), and also H.S. Ratore, G.S. Mathad, C.Plougonven, and C.C. Schukert (eds.), Interconnect and contact metallization, The Electrochem Soc. Pub. Pennington, NJ, (1997)

    Google Scholar 

  173. J. Reid et al., Proc. IEEE Int’l Interconnect Technology Conference (IITC) 1999, 284–286 (May 24–26, 1999)

    Google Scholar 

  174. S. Mayer et al., Electrochem. Soc. Proc. 732, (Oct. 17–22, 1999)

    Google Scholar 

  175. Y. Shacham-Diamond and V. Dubin, Microelectron. Eng., 33, 47 (1997)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  176. T. Nguyen, Y. Ono, D. Evans, Y. Senzaki, M. Kobayshi, L. Charneski, B. Ulrich, and S. Hsu, Electron Chem. Soc. Proc., 97, 120 (1997)

    Google Scholar 

  177. D. Denning, G. Braeckelmann, J. Zang, B. Fiordalice, and R. Venkatramen, VLSI Tech. Digest Tech. Papers, Issue 9–10, 22–23 (June 1998)

    Google Scholar 

  178. J.M. Huth, H.L. Swinney, and W.D. McCormick, Role of convection in thin layer electrodeposition, Phys. Rev., E-51, 3444 (1995) and also L. Chen and T. Ritzdorf, Semicond. Feb.Tech., 12th ed., ICG Pub., UK, p. 267 (July 2000)

    Google Scholar 

  179. M. Goodenough and K.J. Whitelaw, Trans. Inst. Met. Fin., 67, 57 (1989) and also W. Ruythooren et al., Electrodeposition for synthesis of microsystems, J. Micromech. Microeng., 10, 101 (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  180. K.S. Oldham, J. Electroanal. Chem., 420, 53 (1997) and also T.P. Moffat et al., Super conformal electrodeposition of copper in 500–90 nm features, J. Electrochem. Soc., 147 (12), 4524–4535 (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  181. J. Newman, Electrochemical system, pp. 196–197, Prentice Hall, Englewood, NJ, (1991)

    Google Scholar 

  182. P.E. Hoffmann, A. Radisic, and P.C. Searson, Growth kinetics for copper deposition on Si (100) from pyrophosphate solution, J. Electrochem. Soc., 147 (7), 2576 (2000) and also S.C. Goldbach et al., Copper deposition on micro-patterned electrodes from an industrial acid copper plating bath, J. Appl. Electrchem., 30 (1), 1 (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  183. P.C. Andricacos and L.T. Romankiw, Magnetically soft materials: Their properties and electrochemistry, In Advances in electrochemical science and engineering, H. Gerischer and C.W. Tobias (eds.), Vol. 3, pp. 227–321, VCH Pub., New York, (1994), and also P.C. Andricacos, C. Uzoh, J.C. Dukovic, J. Horkans, and H. Deligiani, Damascene copper electroplating for chip interconnections, IBM. J. Res. Dev., 42 (5), 567 (Sept., 1998)

    Google Scholar 

  184. J. O’M Bockris and M. Enyo, Trans. Faraday Soc., 58, 1187 (1962) and also M.G. Legally and Z.Y. Zhang, Nature, 417, 907 (2002)

    Google Scholar 

  185. R.D. Mikkola, Q.T. Jiang, and B. Carpenter, Copper electroplating for advanced interconnect technology, Plat. Surf. Finish., Issue 6, 81–85 (March, 2000)

    Google Scholar 

  186. M. Datta et al., Electrochemical fabrication of mechanically robust PbSn C4 interconnections, J. Electrochem. Soc., 142, 3779 (1995)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  187. J.M.E. Harper, C. Carbral, P.C. Andricacos, L. Gignal, I.C. Noyan, K.P. Rodbell, and C.K. Hu, J. Appl. Phys., 86, 2516 (1999)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  188. C.K. Lingk and M.E. Gross, J. Appl. Phys., 84, 557 (1998)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  189. Y. Cao, P. Taephaisitphongse, R. Chalupu, and A.C. West, Three additive model of superfilling of copper, J. Electrochem. Soc., 148 (7), C466 (2001) and also T.P. Moffat et al., Superconformal electrodeposition of copper in 500-90 nm features, J. Electrochem. Soc., 147 (12), 4524 (2000)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  190. J. Tafel and Z. Physik, Chem., 50A, 641 (1905) and also C. Mad, M. Matlosz, and D. Landolt, J. Electrochem. Soc., 143, 3936 (1996)

    Google Scholar 

  191. V.M. Dublin et al., Int’l. Interconnect Tech. Conf. IEEE Cat No. O1EX461, p. 271, San Francisco, CA, (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  192. R.A. Bistead, J. Wu, R. Mikola, and J.M. Calvert, ECS meeting Philadelphia, PS, (2002)

    Google Scholar 

  193. E. Farndon, F.C. Walsh, and S.A. Campbell, J. Appl. Electrochem., 25, 572 (1995)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  194. P.C. Andricacos, C. Uzoh, J.O. Dukovic, J. Horkans, and H. Deligianni, Damascene copper electroplating for chip interconnections, IBM J. Res. Dev., 42 (5), 567 (Sept., 1998)

    Google Scholar 

  195. K.J. Vetter, Electrochemical kinetics, Chapter 2 , Academic Press, San Diego, CA, (1967)

    Google Scholar 

  196. K.I. Popov, M.G. Pavlovic, and D.T. Lukic, J. Appl. Electrochem., 10, 299 (1980)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  197. M.M. Chow et al., Method for producing coplanar multilevel metal/insulator film on a substrate and for forming patterned conductive lines simultaneously with stud vias, US Patent, 4789648, (Dec. 6, 1988)

    Google Scholar 

  198. C.K. Hu and J.M.E. Harper, Copper interconnections and reliability, Mater. Chem. Phys., 52, 5 (1998)

    Google Scholar 

  199. H. Deligianni, J.O. Dukovic, P.C. Andricacos, and E.G. Walton, Electrochem. Soc. Proc., 267 May, 2–6, (1999)

    Google Scholar 

  200. H. Talieh, Method and apparatus for electrochemical mechanical process, U.S. Patent 6, 176, 992 (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  201. B.M. Basol, Plating method and apparatus that creates a differential between additive deposited on a top surface and a cavity surface of a work piece using an indirect external influence, U.S. Patent Pub. 2002/002068 A1, (Feb.21, 2002)

    Google Scholar 

  202. B.M. Basal, C. Uzoh, H. Taleih, D. Young, P. Lindquist, T. Wang, and M. Cornejor, Microelectron. Eng., 64, 43 (2002) and also W.H. Yu, E.T. Kang, and K.G. Neoh, J. Electrochem. Soc., 149 (11), C592 (2002)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  203. C. Ji, G. Oskam, and P.C. Pearson, Electrodeposition of copper on silicon from sulfate solution, Electochem. Soc., 148 (11), C746–752 (2001)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  204. E.J. O’Sullivan et al., Electrolessly deposited different barrier for microelectronics, IBM J. Res. Dev., 42 (5), 607–620 (1998) and also J. Duffy, L. Pearson, and M. Paunovic, The effect of pH on electroless copper deposition, J. Electrochem. Soc., 130 (4), 876 (1983)

    Google Scholar 

  205. S.S. Tzeng, and F.Y. Chang, Mater. Sci. Eng., A-302, 258 (2001) and also J. Newman, Electrochemical systems, pp. 314–315, Prentice Hall Inc. Englewood Cliff, NJ, (1973)

    Google Scholar 

  206. C.Dew et al., Nano Lett., 3, 143 (2003) and also M.A. Leveque, Annals des mines memoires, Ser. 12, 13, 201–239, 305–362, 381–415 (1928)

    Google Scholar 

  207. F.A. Lowenheim (ed.), Modern electroplating, 3rd ed. John Wiley, NJ, (1974), and also A.K. Graham (ed.), Electroplating engineering handbook, 3rd ed. Van Nostrad Reinhold Co., New York, (1971)

    Google Scholar 

  208. G. Oskam, J.G. Long, A Natarajan, and P.C. Searson, J. Phys. D, 31, 1927 (1998)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  209. Y. Sacham Diamand and M. Angyal, Thin Solid Films, 262, 93–103 (1995)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  210. M. Paunovic, Plating, 55, 1161 (1968) and also H.P. Fong, Y. Wu, Y.Y. Wong, and C.C. Wan, Electroless Cu deposition process on TiN for ULSI interconnect fabrication via Pd/Sn colloid activation, J. Electron. Mater., 32 (1), 9 (2003)

    Google Scholar 

  211. H. Ebneth, In Metallizing of plastics, Handbook of theory and practice, R. Suchentrunk (ed.), ASM International, Materials Park, OH, (1993)

    Google Scholar 

  212. H.P. Fong, Y. Yu, Y.Y. Wang, and C.C. Wan, Electroless deposition process on TiN for ULSI interconnect fabrication via Pd/Sn colloid activation, J. Electron. Mater., 32 (1), 9 (2003)

    Google Scholar 

  213. N. Petrov, Y. Severdlov, and Y.S. Diamond, Electrochemical study of electroless deposition of Co (P) and Co (W,P) alloys, J. Electrochem. Soc., 149 (4), C187 (2002)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  214. S. Balakumar et al., Effect of stress on the properties of copper lines in Cu interconnects, Electrochem. Solid State Lett., 7(4), G68 (2004)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  215. T. Hara, K. Kakata, and Y. Yoshida, Electrochem determine grain size of the EP-Cu. Solid State Lett., 5, C41 (2002) and also Z. Suo, Reliability of interconnect structures, Interfacial and nanoscale failure, W. Gerberich, and W, Wang (eds.), Vol. 8, pp. 263–324, Elsivier, Amsterdam, (2003)

    Google Scholar 

  216. T. Hara and K. Sakata, Stress in copper seed layer employing in copper interconnection, Electrochem Solid State Lett., 4(10), G-77 (2001)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  217. D.Y. Kim, PhD Dissertation, Stanford University, Stanford (Dec., 2003)

    Google Scholar 

  218. J.J. Toomy, S. Hymes, and S. Murarka, Stress effects in thermal cycling of copper (magnesium) thin films, Appl. Phys. Lett., 2074–2076 (April 1995)

    Google Scholar 

  219. A.A. Volinsky, Mat. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc., 649, (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  220. D.E. Kramer, A.A. Volinsky, N.R. Moody, and W.W. Gerberich, J. Mater. Res., 16 (11), 3150 (2001)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  221. P.A. Flinn and G.A. Waychuns, A new X-ray diffractometer design for thin film texture, strain, and phase characterization, J. Vac. Sci. Technol., B-6, 1749 (1988)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  222. H.B. Nie et al., Structural and electrical properties of tantalum nitride thin films fabricated by using reactive radiofrequency magnetron sputtering, Appl. Phys. A, 73, 229 (2001)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  223. Y. Liu and H. Huang, Phil. Mag., 84 (19), 1919 (2004)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  224. R.L. Cohen and R.I. Meek, J. Colloid Interf. Sci., 55, 156 (1976) and also R.L. Cohen and K.W. West, J. Electrochem. Soc., 120, 502 (1973)

    Google Scholar 

  225. R.L. Jackson, Initiation of electroless copper plating using Pd+2 poly acrylic acid films, J. Electrochem. Soc., 135 (12), 3172 (Dec., 1988)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  226. W.J. Dressick, C.S. Dulcey, J.H. Georger, G.S. Calabrese, and J.M. Calvert, J. Electrochem. Soc., 141, 210 (1994)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  227. E. Budevski, G.S. Staikov, and W.J. Lorenz, Electrochemical phase transfomation and growth, VCH, Weinheim, Germany, (1996)

    Book  Google Scholar 

  228. D.M. Kolb, R. Ullmann, T. Will, Science, 275, 1097 (1997)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  229. R.M. Stiger, S. Gorer, B. Craft, and R. Renner, Langmuir, 75780 (1999)

    Google Scholar 

  230. K. Maex et al., Low dielectric constant materials for microelectronics, J. Appl. Phys., 93, 8793 (2003)

    Google Scholar 

  231. F. Lacopi et al., Impact of LKD5109 low-K interfaces in single damascene process and performance, Micrelectron. Eng., 65, 293 (Nov., 2003)

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Radiation Monitoring Devices, Inc., Watertown, MA, USA

    Tapan Gupta

Authors
  1. Tapan Gupta
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Tapan Gupta .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Gupta, T. (2009). Deposition Technologies of Materials for Cu-Interconnects. In: Copper Interconnect Technology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0076-0_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0076-0_5

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4419-0075-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4419-0076-0

  • eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation