Skip to main content

Comparative Primate Bone Microstructure: Records of Life History, Function, and Phylogeny

  • Chapter
Mammalian Evolutionary Morphology

Part of the book series: Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series ((VERT))

The study of comparative osteology has yielded an abundant literature regarding the form, function and biological roles of bones and whole skeletons. These data have been variably applied to the fossil record, contributing to the reconstruction of locomotion, life history features and the evolutionary histories of the better-known extinct animals, yet many questions regarding the paleobiology of fossil taxa remain. The vast majority of work to date has examined whole bones and their macroscopically defined parts, rather than their microstructure. However, such inquiry often suffers from superficial analogies with living taxa, as well as from the frequent incompleteness of fossil material (e.g., Szalay, 2000; Szalay and Sargis, 2001). These shortcomings in turn limit phylogenetic interpretations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 89.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Aerts, P., 1998. Vertical jumping in Galago senegalensis: the quest for an obligate mechanical power amplifier. Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society B 353, 1607–1620.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amprino, R., 1946. La structure du tissue osseux envisagee comme expression de differences dans la vitesse de l’accroissement. Archives de Biologie LVII, 315–330.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amprino, R., 1948. A contribution to the functional meaning of the substitution of primary by secondary bone tissue. Acta Anatomica 5, 291–300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amprino, R., Godina, G., 1947. La struttura delle ossa nei vertebrati: ricerche comparative negli anfibi e negli amnioti. Commentationes. Pontificia Accademia Delle Scienze 11(9), 329–464.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ascenzi, A., Bonucci, E., 1967. The tensile properties of single osteons. Anatomical Record 158, 375–386.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ascenzi, A., Bonucci, E., 1968. The compressive properties of single osteons. Anatomical Record 161, 377–392.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ascenzi, A., Bonucci, E., 1972. The shearing properties of single osteons. Anatomical Record 172, 499–510.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ascenzi, A., Benvenuti, A., 1986. Orientation of collagen fibers at the boundary between two successive osteonic lamellae and its mechanical interpretation. Journal of Biomechanics 19, 455–463.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ascenzi, A., Bonucci, E., Simkin, A., 1973. An approach to the mechanical properties of single osteonic lamellae. Journal of Biomechanics 6, 227–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ascenzi, A., Boyde, A., Portigliatti Barbos, M., Carando, S., 1987. Micro-biomechanics vs. macro-biomechanics in cortical bone. A micromechanical investigation of femurs deformed by bending. Journal of Biomechanics 20, 1045–1053.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bateman, N., 1954. Bone growth: a study of the grey-lethal and microphthalmic mutants of the mouse. Journal of Anatomy 88(2), 212–262.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biewener, A., 1991. Musculoskeletal design in relation to body size. Journal of Biomechanics 24, 19–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biewener, A. A., Swartz, S. M., Bertram, J. E. A., 1986. Bone modeling during growth: dynamic strain equilibrium in the chick tibiotarsus. Calcified Tissue International 39, 390–395.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boinski, S., 1989. The positional behavior and substrate use of squirrel monkeys: ecological implications. Journal of Human Evolution 18, 659–677.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonis, L. de, Lebeau, M., de Ricqlès, A., 1972. Etude de la répartition des types de tissues osseux chez les vértébrés tétrapodes au moyen de l’analyse factorielle des correspondences. Comptes rendus de l’Académie des sciences D 274, 3084–3087.

    Google Scholar 

  • Botha, J., Chinsamy, A., 2000. Growth patterns deduced from the bone histology of the cynodonts Diademodon and Cynognathus. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 20(4), 705–711.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bouvier, M., Hylander, W. L., 1981. Effect of bone strain on cortical bone structure in macaques (Macaca mulatta). Journal of Morphology 167, 1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyde, A., Jones, S., 1998. Aspects of anatomy and development of bone. In: Zaidi, M., Adebanjo, O. A., Huang, C. L. H. (Eds.), Advances in Organ Biology: Molecular and Cellular Biology of Bone, Part 5A. JAI Press, Stamford, pp. 3–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyde, A., Riggs, C. M., 1990. The quantitative study of the orientation of collagen in compact bone slices. Bone 11, 35–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bromage, T. G., 1986. A comparative scanning electron microscope study of facial growth and remodeling in early hominids. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bromage, T. G., 1992. Microstructural organization and biomechanics of the macaque circumorbital region. In: Smith, P., Tchernov, E. (Eds.), Structure, Function and Evolution of Teeth. Freund Publishing House, London, pp. 257–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bromage, T. G., Goldman, H. M., McFarlin, S. C., Warshaw, J., Boyde, A., Riggs, C. M., 2003. Circularly polarized light standards for investigations of collagen fiber orientation in bone. Anatomical Record. Part B New Anatomist 274(1), 157–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burr, D. B., 1979. Percentage ash content of nonhuman primate long limb bones. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 51, 361–364.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burr, D. B., 1980. The relationships among physical, geometrical and mechanical properties of bone, with a note on the properties of nonhuman primate bone. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 23, 109–146.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burr, D. B., 1992. Estimated intracortical bone turnover in the femur of growing macaques: implications for their use as models in skeletal pathology. Anatomical Record 232, 180–189.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burr, D. B., 1993. Remodeling and the repair of fatigue damage. Calcified Tissue International 53, S75–S81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burr, D. B., Martin, R. B., Schaffler, M. B., Radin, E. L., 1985. Bone remodeling in response to in vivo fatigue microdamage. Journal of Biomechanics 18, 189–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burr, D. B., Piotrowski, G., Martin, R. B., Cook, P. N., 1982. Femoral mechanics in the lesser bushbaby (Galago senegalensis): structural adaptations to leaping in primates. Anatomical Record 202, 419–429.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burr, D. B., Schaffler, M. B., Yang, K. H., Lukoschek, M., Sivaneri, N., Blaha, J. D., Radin, E. L., 1989. Skeletal change in response to altered strain environments: is woven bone a response to elevated strain? Bone 10, 223–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cant, J. G. H., Youlatos, D., Rose, M. D., 2001. Locomotor behavior of Lagothrix lagothricha and Ateles belzebuth in Yasuni National Park, Ecuador: general patterns and nonsuspensory modes. Journal of Human Evolution 41, 141–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carando, S., Portigliatti-Barbos, M., Ascenzi, A., Boyde, A., 1989. Orientation of collagen in human tibial and fibular shaft and possible correlation with mechanical properties. Bone 10, 139–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carando, S., Portigliatti-Barbos, M., Ascenzi, A., Riggs, C. M., Boyde, A., 1991. Macroscopic shape of, and lamellar distribution within, the upper limb shafts, allowing inferences about mechanical properties. Bone 12, 265–269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castanet, J., de Ricqlès, A., 1986–87. Sur la relativité de la notion d’osteones primaires et secondaires et de tissus osseux primaire et secondaire en général. Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Zoologie 13(8), 103–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castanet, J., Croci, S., Aujard, F., Perret, M., Cubo, J., de Margerie, E., 2004. Lines of arrested growth in bone and age estimation in a small primate: Microcebus murinus. Journal of Zoology 263(1), 31–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castanet, J., Cubo, J., de Margerie, E., 2001. Signification de l’histodiversité osseuse: le message de l’os. Biosystema–Systématique et Paléontologie 19, 133–147.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castanet, J., Grandin, A., Abourachid, A., de Ricqlés A., 1996. Expression of growth dynamic in the structure of the periosteal bone in the mallard Anas platyrhynchos. Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences III-Vie 319, 301–308.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castanet, J., Rogers, K. C., Cubo, J., Boisard, J. J., 2000. Periosteal bone growth rates in extant ratites (ostriche and emu). Implications for assessing growth in dinosaurs. Comptes rendus de l’Académie des sciences III-Vie 323(6), 543–550.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chamay, A., Tschantz, P., 1972. Mechanical influences in bone remodeling. Experimental research on Wolff’s law. Journal of Biomechanics 5, 173–180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charles-Dominique, P., 1971a. Eco-ethologie des prosimiens du Gabon. Revue Biologia Gabonica 7, 121–228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charles-Dominique, P., 1971b. Eco-ethologie et vie sociale des prosimiens du Gabon. Bulletin de la Société d’Ecologie II, 318–326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crawford, G. N. C., 1940. The evolution of the Haversian pattern. Journal of Anatomy 74, 284–299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cubo, J., Berge, C., Quilhac, A., Margerie, E. de, Castnet, J., 2002. Heterochronic patterns in primate evolution: evidence from endochondral ossification. European Journal of Morphology 40(2), 81–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Currey, J. D., 1960. Differences in the blood supply of bone of different histological types. Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science 101, 351–370.

    Google Scholar 

  • Currey, J. D., 1999. The design of mineralized hard tissues for their mechanical functions. Journal of Experimental Biology 202, 3285–3294.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curry, K., 1998. Histological quantification of growth rates in Apatosaurus. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 18(3), 36A–37A.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dagosto, M., 1988. Implications of postcranial evidence for the origin of euprimates. Journal of Human Evolution 17, 35–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dagosto, M., 1994. Testing positional behavior of Malagasy lemurs: a randomized approach. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 94, 189–202.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dagosto, M., Gebo, D. L., 1994. Postcranial anatomy and the origin of the Anthropoidea. In: Fleagle, J. G., Kay, R. F. (Eds.), Anthropoid Origins. Plenum, New York, pp. 567–594.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Buffrénil, V., Pascal, M., 1984. Croissance et morphogenèse postnatales de la mandibule du vison (Mustela vison Schreibner): donnes sur la dynamique et l’interprétation fonctionelle des depots osseux mandibulaires. Canadian Journal of Zoology 62, 2026–2037.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delson, E., Terranova, C. J., Jungers, W. L., Sargis, E. J., Jablonski, N. G., Dechow, P. C., 2000. Body mass in Cercopithecidae (Primates, Mammalia). Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 83, 1–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Margerie, E. 2002. Laminar bone as an adaptation to torsional loads in flapping flight. Journal of Anatomy 201(6), 521–526.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Margerie, E., Cubo, J., Castanet, J., 2002. Bone typology and growth rate: testing and quantifying ‘Amprino’s rule’ in the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos). Comptes Rendus Biologies 325, 221–230.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Margerie, E., Robin, J. P., Verrier, D., Cubo, J., Groscolas, R., Castanet, J., 2004. Assessing a relationship between bone microstructure and growth rate: a fluorescent labelling study in the king penguin chick (Aptenodytes patagonicus). Journal of Experimental Biology 207(Pt 5), 869–879.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Margerie, E., Sanchez, S., Cubo, J., Castanet, J., 2005. Torsional resistance as a principal component of the structural design of long bones: comparative multivariate evidence in birds. Anatomical Record Part A 282A, 49–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Demes, B., Fleagle, J. G., Jungers, W. L., 1999. Takeoff and landing forces of leaping strepsirhine primates. Journal of Human Evolution 37, 279–292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Demes, B., Gunther, M. M., 1989. Biomechanics and allometric scaling in primate locomotion and morphology. Folia Primatologica 53, 125–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Demes, B., Jungers, W. L., 1989. Functional differentiation of long bones in lorises. Folia Primatologica 52, 58–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Demes, B., Jungers, W. L., Nieschalk, U., 1990. Size-and speed-related aspects of quadrupedal walking in slender and slow lorises. In: Jouffroy, F., Stack, M., Niemitz, C. (Eds.), Gravity, Posture and Locomotion in Primates. Firenze, Il Sedicesimo, pp. 175–197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Demes, B., Jungers, W. L., Selpien, K., 1991. Body size, locomotion, and long bone cross-sectional geometry in indriid primates. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 86, 537–547.

    Google Scholar 

  • Demes, B., Qin, Y.-X., Stern, J. T. J., Larson, S. G., Rubin, C. T., 2001. Patterns of strain in the macaque tibia during functional activity. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 116, 257–265.

    Google Scholar 

  • Demeter, G., Mátyás, J., 1928. Mikroskopisch verleichend-anatomische Studien an Röhrenknochen mit besonderer Rucksicht auf die Unterscheidung menschlicher und tierischer Knochen. Zeitschrift fur Anatomie und Entwicklungsgeschichte 87, 45–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Ricqlès, A., 1968. Recherches paleohistologiques sur les os longs des tetrapodes. I–Origine du tissue osseux plexiforme des dinosauriens sauropodes. Annales de Paleontologie (Vertebres) 54, 131–145

    Google Scholar 

  • de Ricqlès, A., 1969. Recherches paleohistologiques sur les os longs des tetrapodes. II–Quelques observations sur la structure des os longs des theriodontes. Annales de Paleontologie (Vertebres) 55, 1–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Ricqlès, A., 1975. Recherches paleohistologiqus sur es os longs des tetrapodes. VII–Sur la classification, la signification fonctionelle et l’histoire des tissues osseux des tetrapodes (premiere partie). Annales de Paleontologie (Vertebres) 61, 51–129 (plus plates).

    Google Scholar 

  • de Ricqlès, A., 1976. Recherches paleohistologiqus sur es os longs des tetrapodes. VII–Sur la classification, la signification fonctionelle et l’histoire des tissues osseux des tetrapodes (deuxieme partie). Annales de Paleontologie (Vertebres) 62, 71–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Ricqlès, A., 1977a. Recherches paleohistologiqus sur es os longs des tetrapodes. VII–Sur la classification, la signification fonctionelle et l’histoire des tissues osseux des tetrapodes (deuxieme partie, fin). Annales de Paleontologie (Vertebres) 63, 133–160.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Ricqlès, A., 1977b. Recherches paleohistologiqus sur es os longs des tetrapodes. VII–Sur la classification, la signification fonctionelle et l’histoire des tissues osseux des tetrapodes (deuxieme partie, suite). Annales de Paleontologie (Vertebres) 63, 33–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Ricqlès, A., 1978a. Recherches paleohistologiqus sur es os longs des tetrapodes. VII–Sur la classification, la signification fonctionelle et l’histoire des tissues osseux des tetrapodes (troisieme partie). Annales de Paleontologie (Vertebres) 64, 85–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Ricqlès, A., 1978b. Recherches paleohistologiqus sur es os longs des tetrapodes. VII–Sur la classification, la signification fonctionelle et l’histoire des tissues osseux des tetrapodes (troisieme partie, fin). Annales de Paleontologie (Vertebres) 64, 153–184.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Ricqlès, A., 1992. Some remarks on palaeohistology from a comparative evolutionary point of view. In: Grupe, G., Garland, A. N. (Eds.), Histology of Ancient Human Bone: Methods and Diagnosis. Springer, Berlin, pp. 37–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Ricqlès, A., Meunier, F., Castanet, J., Francillon-Vieillot, H., 1991. Comparative microstructure of bone. In: Hall, B. (Ed.), Bone–Volume 3: Bone Matrix and Bone Specific Products. CRC, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 1–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Ricqlès, A., Padian, K., Horner, J. R., Francillion-Vieillot, H., 2000. Palaeohistology of the bones of pterosaurs (Reptilia: Archosauria): anatomy, ontogeny, and biomechanical implications. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, London 129, 349–385.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunbar, D. C., 1988. Aerial maneuvers of leaping lemurs: the physics of whole-body rotations while airborne. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 16, 291–303.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dykyj, D., 1980. Locomotion of the slow loris in a designed substrate context. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 52, 577–586.

    Google Scholar 

  • Enlow, D. H., 1962a. Functions of the Haversian system. American Journal of Anatomy 110, 269–305.

    Google Scholar 

  • Enlow, D. H., 1962b. A study of the postnatal growth and remodeling of bone. American Journal of Anatomy 110, 79–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Enlow, D. H., 1963. Principles of Bone Remodeling. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield.

    Google Scholar 

  • Enlow, D. H., 1966. An evaluation of the use of bone histology in forensic medicine and anthropology. In: Evans, F. G. (Ed.), Studies on the Anatomy and Function of Bone and Joints. Springer, New York, pp. 93–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Enlow, D. H., 1976. The remodeling of bone. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 20, 19–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Enlow, D. H., 1982. Handbook of Facial Growth. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Enlow, D. H., Brown, S. O., 1956. A comparative histological study of fossil and recent bone tissues. Part I. Texas Journal of Science VIII, 405–443.

    Google Scholar 

  • Enlow, D. H., Brown, S. O., 1957. A comparative histological study of fossil and recent bone tissues. Part II. Texas Journal of Science IX, 186–214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Enlow, D. H., Brown, S. O., 1958. A comparative histological study of fossil and recent bone tissues. Part III. Texas Journal of Science X, 187–230.

    Google Scholar 

  • Enlow, D. H., Hans, M. G., 1996. Essentials of Facial Growth. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erickson, G. M., Rogers, K. C., Yerby, S. A., 2001. Dinosaurian growth patterns and rapid avian growth rates. Nature 412(6845), 429–433.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erickson, G. M., Tumanova, T. A., 2000. Growth curve of Psittacosaurus mongoliensis Osborn (Ceratopsia: Psittacosauridae) inferred from long bone histology. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society of London 130, 551–566.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, G., Bang, S., 1967. Differences and relationships between the physical properties and the microscopic structure of human femoral, tibial and fibular cortical bone. American Journal of Anatomy 120, 79–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falsetti, A. B., Cole, T. M. I., 1992. Relative growth of the postcranial skeleton in callitrichines. Journal of Human Evolution 23, 79–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleagle, J. G., Mittermeier, R. A., 1980. Locomotor behavior, body size, and comparative ecology of seven Surinam monkeys. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 52, 301–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fontaine, R., 1990. Positional behavior in Saimiri boliviensis and Ateles geoffroyi. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 82, 485–508.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foote, J., 1913. The comparative histology of the femur. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 61, 1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foote, J., 1916. A contribution to the comparative histology of the femur. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge 35(3), iii–ix, 1–242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, S. M., 1988. Postcranial adaptations of the earliest platyrrhine. Journal of Human Evolution 17, 155–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Francillon-Vieillot, H., de Buffrénil, V., Castanet, J., Geraudie, J., Meunier, F. J., Sire, J. Y., Zylberberg, L., de Ricqlès, A., 1990. Microstructure and mineralization of vertebrate skeletal tissues. In: Carter, J. G. (Ed.), Skeletal Biomineralization: Patterns, Processes and Evolutionary Trends. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, pp. 471–530.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garber, P. A., Leigh, S. R., 1997. Ontogenetic variation in small-bodied new world primates: Implications for patterns of reproduction and infant care. Folia Primatologica 68, 1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galliari, C. A., 1988. A study of postnatal appendicular maturation in captive-born squirrel monkeys (Saimiri boliviensis). American Journal of Primatology 16, 51–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gebo, D. L., 1987. Locomotor diversity in prosimian primates. American Journal of Primatology 13, 271–281.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gebo, D. L., Dagosto, M., 1988. Foot anatomy, climbing, and the origin of the Indriidae. Journal of Human Evolution 17, 135–154.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glassman, D., Wells, J., 1984. Positional and activity behavior in a captive slow loris: a quantitative assessment. American Journal of Primatology 7, 121–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Godfrey, L. R., 1988. Adaptive diversification of Malagasy strepsirrhines. Journal of Human Evolution 17, 93–134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Godfrey, L. R., Samonds, K. E., Jungers, W. L., Sutherland, M. R., Irwin, M. T., 2004. Ontogenetic correlates of diet in Malagasy lemurs. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 123, 250–276.

    Google Scholar 

  • Godinot, M., 1990. An introduction to the history of primate locomotion. In: Jouffroy, F. K., Stack, M. H., Niemitz, C. (Eds.), Gravity, Posture and Locomotion in Primates. Firenze, Il Sedicesimo, pp. 45–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldman, H. M., 2001. Histocomposition and geometry at the human midshaft femur. Ph.D. dissertation, The City University of New York, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldman, H. M., Kindsvater, J., Bromage, T. G., 1998. Correlative light and backscattered electron microscopy of bone–Part I: specimen preparation methods. Scanning 21, 40–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gomez, A., 1992. Primitive and derived patterns of relative growth among species of Lorisidae. Journal of Human Evolution 23, 219–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall-Craggs, E. C. B., 1974. Physiological and histochemical parameters in comparative locomotor studies. In: Martin, R. D., Doyle, G. A., Walker, A. C. (Eds.), Prosimian Biology. Duckworth, London, pp. 829–845.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamrick, M., 1999. Development of epiphyseal structure and function in Didelphis virginiana (Marsupiala, Didelphidae). Journal of Morphology 239, 283–296.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horner, J. R., Padian, K., 2004. Age and growth dynamics of Tyrannosaurus rex. Proceedings of the Royal Society London, Series B Biology 271(1551), 1875–1880.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horner, J. R., de Ricqlès, A., Padian, K., 2000. Long bone histology of the hadrosaurid dinosaur Maiasaura peeblesorum: growth dynamics and physiology based on an ontogenetic series of skeletal elements. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 20, 115–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ishida, H., Jouffroy, F., Nakano, Y., 1990. Comparative dynamics of pronograde upside down horizontal quadrupedalism in the slow loris (Nycticebus coucang). In: Jouffroy, F., Stack, M., Niemitz, C. (Eds.), Gravity, Posture and Locomotion in Primates. Firenze, Il Sedicesimo, pp. 209–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ishida, H., Hirasaki, E., Matano, S., 1992. Locomotion of the slow loris between discontinuous substrates. In: Matano, S., Tuttle, R., Ishida, H., Goodman, M. (Eds.), Topics in Primatology, Volume 3: Evolutionary Biology, Reproductive Endocrinology, and Virology. University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, pp. 139–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, F. A. Jr., Domlnowshi, P. J., Gordon, E. P., 1978. Analysis of the shoulder in brachiating spider monkeys. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 48, 65–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jerome, C. P., Peterson, P. E., 2001. Nonhuman primate models in skeletal research. Bone 29(1), 1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, S. E., Shapiro, L. J., 1998. Positional behavior and vertebral morphology in atelines and cebines. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 105, 333–354.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jolly, C. J., Gorton, A. T., 1974. Proportions of the extrinsic foot muscles in some lorisid prosimians. In: Martin, R. D., Doyle, G. A., Walker, A. C. (Eds.), Prosimian Biology. Duckworth, London, pp. 801–815.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jouffroy, F. K., 1975. Osteology and myology of the lemuriform postcranial skeleton. In: Tattersal, I., Sussman, R. E. (Eds.), Lemur Biology. Plenum, New York, pp. 149–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jouffroy, F. K., Berge, C., Niemitz, C., 1984. Comparative study of the lower extremity in the genus Tarsius. In: Niemitz, C. (Ed.), Biology of the Tarsiers. Gustav Fischer Verlag, New York, pp. 167–190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jouffroy, F. K., Gasc, J. P., Decombas, M., Oblin, S., 1974. Biomechanics of vertical leaping from the ground in Galago alleni: a cineradiographic analysis. In: Martin, R. D., Doyle, G. A., Walker, A. C. (Eds.), Prosimian Biology. Duckworth, London, pp. 817–827.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jouffroy, F. K., Lessertisseur, J., 1979. Relationships between limb morphology and locomotor adaptations among prosimians: an osteometric study. In: Morbeck, M. E., Preuschoft, H., Gomberg, N. (Eds.), Environment, Behavior, and Morphology: Dynamic Interactions in Primates. Gustav Fischer, New York, pp. 143–181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jouffroy, F. K., Petter, A., 1990. Gravity-related kinematic changes in lorisine horizontal locomotion in relation to position of the body. In: Jouffroy, F., Stack, M., Niemitz, C. (Eds.), Gravity, Posture and Locomotion in Primates. Firenze, Il Sedicesimo, pp. 199–208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jouffroy, F. K., Renous, S., Gasc, J., 1983. Etude cinéradiographique des deplacements du membre antérieur du potto de Bosman (Perodicticus potto, P.L.S. Muller, 1766) au cours de la marche quadrupède sur une branche horizontale. Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Zoologie, Paris 5, 75–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jouffroy, F. K., Stern, J. T. J., 1990. Telemetered EMG study of the antigravity versus propulsive actions of knee and elbow muscles in the slow loris. In: Jouffroy, F., Stack, M., Niemitz, C. (Eds.), Gravity, Posture and Locomotion in Primates. Firenze, Il Sedicesimo, pp. 221–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jowsey, J., 1966. Studies of Haversian systems in man and some animals. Journal of Anatomy 100, 857–864.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jowsey, J., 1968. Age and species differences in bone. Cornell Veterinarian 58, 74–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jungers, W. L., 1985. Body size and scaling of limb proportions in primates. In: Jungers, W. L. (Ed.), Size and Scaling in Primate Biology. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 345–381.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kappeler, P. M., 1996. Causes and consequences of life-history variation among strepsirhine primates. American Naturalist 148, 868–891.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kappeler, P. M., 1998. Nests, tree holes, and the evolution of primate life histories. American journal of Primateology 46, 7–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kimura, T., 2002. Primate limb bones and locomotor types in arboreal or terrestrial environments. Zeitschrift fur Morphologie und Anthropologie 83, 201–219.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, S. J., 2003. An evolutionary perspective on differential craniodental and postcranial growth and development in primates. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts, Massachusetts.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirkwood, J. K., 1985. Patterns of growth in primates. Journal of Zoology, London (A) 205, 123–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klevezal, G. A., 1996. Recording Structures of Mammals. Determination of Age and Reconstruction of Life History. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohn, L. A. P., Olson, P., Cheverud, J. M., 1997. Age of epiphyseal closure in tamarins and marmosets. American Journal of Primatology 41, 129–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krishtalka, L., Schwartz, J. H., 1978. Phylogenetic relationships of plesiadapiform-tarsiiform primates. Annals of the Carnegie Museum 47, 515–540.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lanyon, L. E., 1984. Functional strain as a determinant for bone remodeling. Calcified Tissue International 36, S56–S61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lanyon, L. E., 1993. Osteocytes, strain detection, bone modeling and remodeling. Calcified Tissue International 53, S102–S107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lanyon, L. E., Goodship, A. E., Pye, C. J., MacFie, J. H., 1982. Mechanically adaptive bone remodelling. Journal of Biomechanics 15, 141–154.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lanyon, L. E., Rubin, C. T., 1985. Functional adaptation in skeletal structures. In: Hildebrand, M., Bramble, D. M., Liem, K. F., Wake, D. B. (Eds.), Functional Vertebrate Morphology. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, pp. 1–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, D. E., Crompton, A. W., 1998. Responses of bone to stress: constraints on symmorphosis. In: Weibel, E. R., Taylor, C. R., Bolis, L. (Eds.), Principles of Animal Design: The Optimization and Symmorphosis Debate. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 78–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, D. E., Pearson, O. M., 2001. Trade-off between modeling and remodeling responses to loading in the mammalian limb. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 156, 269–282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leigh, S. R., Terranova, C. J., 1998. Comparative perspectives on bimaturism, ontogeny, and dimorphism in lemurid primates. International Journal of Primatology 19, 723–749.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, R. B., 1991. Determinants of the mechanical properties of bones [published erratum appears in 1992, Journal of Biomechanics 25(10), 1251]. Journal of Biomechanics 24(Supplement 1), 79–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, B., 1993. Aging and strength of bone as a structural material. Calcified Tissue International 53, S34–S40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, R. B., 2000. Toward a unifying theory of bone remodeling. Bone 26, 1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, R. B., Burr, D. B., 1989. Structure, Function, and Adaptation of Compact Bone. Raven, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, R. B., Ishida, J., 1989. The relative effects of collagen fiber orientation, porosity, density, and mineralization on bone strength. Journal of Biomechanics 22, 419–426.

    Google Scholar 

  • McFarlin, S. C., 2006. Ontogenetic variation in long bone microstructure in catarrhines and its significance for life history research. Ph.D. dissertation, The City University of New York, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • McMahon, J. M., Boyde, A., Bromage, T. G., 1995. Pattern of collagen fiber orientation in the ovine calcaneal shaft and its relation to locomotor-induced strain. Anatomical Record 242, 147–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mittermeier, R. A., 1978. Locomotion and posture in Ateles geoffroyi and Ateles paniscus. Folia Primatologica 30, 161–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moss, M. L., 1964. The phylogeny of mineralized tissues. International Review of General and Experimental Zoology 1, 297–331.

    Google Scholar 

  • Müller, E. F., 1982. Heart rate in the slow loris (Nycticebus coucang). Folia Primatologica 38, 250–3258.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nakatsukasa, M., Takai, M., Setoguchi, T., 1997. Functional morphology of the postcranium and locomotor behavior of Neosaimiri fieldsi, a Saimiri-like middle Miocene platyrrhine. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 102(4), 515–544.

    Google Scholar 

  • Napier, J. R., Napier, P. H., 1967. A Handbook of Living Primates. Academic, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Napier, J. P., Walker, A. C., 1967. Vertical clinging and leaping–a newly recognized category of locomotor behavior of primates. Folia Primatologica 6, 2047–2219.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newell-Morris, L., Sirianni, J. E., 1982. Parameters of bone growth in the fetal and infant macaque (Macaca nemestrina) humerus as documented by trichromatic bone labels. In: Dixon, A. D., Sarnat, B. G. (Eds.), Factors and Mechanisms Influencing Bone Growth. Alan R. Liss, New York, pp. 243–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • Niemitz, C., 1983. New results on the locomotion of Tarsius bancanus, Horsfield, 1821. Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Zoologie, Paris Series 13, 89–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ortmann, S., Heldmaier, G., Schmid, J., Ganzhorn, J. U., 1997. Spontaneous daily torpor in Malagasy mouse lemurs. Naturwissenschaften 84, 28–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oxnard, C. E., 1973. Some locomotor adapations among lower primates: implications for primate evolution. Symposia of the Zoological Society of London 33, 255–299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oxnard, C. E., German, R., Jouffroy, F. K., Lessertisseur, J., 1981a. A morphometric study of limb proportions in leaping prosimians. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 54, 421–430.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oxnard, C. E., German, R., McArdle, J., 1981b. The functional morphometrics of the hip and thigh in leaping prosimians. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 54, 481–498.

    Google Scholar 

  • Padian, K., de Ricqlès, A. Horner, J. R., 2001. Dinosaurian growth rates and bird origins. Nature 412(6845), 405–408.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paine, R. R., Godfrey, L. R., 1997. The scaling of skeletal microanatomy in non-human primates. Journal of Zoology, London 241, 803–821.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petter, J. J., Hladik, C. M., 1970. Observations sure le domaine vital et la densité de population de Loris tardigradus dans les forêts de Ceylan. Mammalia 34, 394–409.

    Google Scholar 

  • Portigliatti-Barbos, M., Bianco, P., Ascenzi, A., 1983. Distribution of osteonic and interstitial components in the human femoral shaft with reference to structure, calcification and mechanical properties. Acta Anatomica 115, 178–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poux, C., Douzery, E. J. P., 2004. Primate phylogeny, evolutionary rate variations, and divergence times: a contribution from the nuclear gene IRBP. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 124(1), 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Preuschoft, H., Günther, M. M., Christian, A., 1998. Size dependence in prosimian locomotion and its implications for the distribution of body mass. Folia Primatologica 69, 60–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Preuschoft, H., Witte, H., Fischer, M., 1995. Locomotion in nocturnal primates. In: Alterman, L., Doyle, G., Izard, M. (Eds.), Creatures of the Dark: The Nocturnal Prosimians. Plenum, New York, pp. 453–472.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quekett, J., 1849. On the intimate structure of bone, as composing the skeleton in the four great classes of animals, viz., mammals, birds, reptiles, and fishes, with some remarks on the great value of the knowledge of such structure in determining the affinities of minute fragments of organic remains. Transactions of the Microscopical Society of London 2, 46–458.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quekett, J., 1855. Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue of the Histological Series Contained in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. Prepared for the Microscope. Royal College of Surgeons, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, D. T., 1994. The different meanings of a Tarsius-anthropoid clade and a new model of anthropoid origins. In: Fleagle, J. F., Kay, R. F. (Eds.), Anthropoid Origins. Plenum, New York, pp. 335–360.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, D. T., Izard, M. K., 1988. Scaling of growth and life history traits relative to body size, brain size, and metabolic rate in lorises and galagos (Lorisidae, Primates). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 75, 357–367.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rho, J.-Y., Zioupos, P., Currey, J. D., Pharr, G. M., 1999. Variations in the individual thick lamellar properties within osteons by nanoindentation. Bone 25, 295–300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riggs, C. M., Lanyon, L. E., Boyde, A., 1993a. Functional associations between collagen fiber orientation and locomotor strain direction in cortical bone of the equine radius. Anatomy and Embryology 187, 231–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riggs, C. M., Vaughan, L. C., Evans, G. P., Lanyon, L. E., Boyde, A., 1993b. Mechanical implications of collagen fibre orientation in cortical bone of the equine radius. Anatomy and Embryology 187, 239–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robling, A. G., Stout, S. D., 1999. Morphology of the drifting osteon. Cells Tissues Organs 164, 192–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rose, M. D., 1993. Functional anatomy of the elbow and the forearm in primates. In: Gebo, D. L. (Ed.), Postcranial Adaptation in Nonhuman Primates. Northern Illinois University Press, Dekalb, IL, pp. 70–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberger, A. L., 2002. Platyrrhine paleontology and systematics: the paradigm shifts. In: Hartwig, W. C. (Ed.), The Primate Fossil Record. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 151–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberger, A. L., Szalay, F. S., 1980. On the tarsiiform origins of Anthropoidea. In: Ciochon, R. L., Chiarelli, A. B. (Eds.), Evolutionary Biology of the New World Monkeys and Continental Drift. Plenum, New York, pp. 139–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross, C., 1998. Primate life histories. Evolutionary Anthropology 6(2), 54–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruff, C. B., 2003. Long bone articular and diaphyseal structure in Old World monkeys and apes. II: Estimation of body mass. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 120(1), 16–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruff, C., Runestad, J., 1992. Primate limb bone structural adaptations. Annual Review of Anthropology 21, 407–433.

    Google Scholar 

  • Runestad, J. A., 1997. Postcranial adaptations for climbing in Loridae (Primates). Journal of Zoology, London 242, 261–290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Runestad Connour, J., Glander, K., Vincent, F., 2000. Postcranial adaptations for leaping in primates. Journal of Zoology, London 251, 79–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sander, P. M., 2000. Long bone histology of the Tendaguru sauropods: implications for growth and biology. Paleobiology 26, 466–488.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaffler, M. B., Burr, D. B., 1984. Primate cortical bone microstructure: relationship to locomotion. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 65, 191–197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaffler, M. B., Burr, D. B., 1988. Stiffness of compact bone: effects of porosity and density. Journal of Biomechanics 21(1), 13–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaffler, M. B., Radin, E. L., Burr, D. B., 1989 Mechanical and morphological effects of strain rate on fatigue of compact bone. Bone 10, 207–214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaffler, M. B., Radin, E. L., Burr, D. B., 1990. Long-term fatigue behavior of compact bone at low strain magnitude and rate. Bone 11, 321–326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmid, J., 1998. Daily torpor in mouse lemurs, Microcebus spp.: metabolic rate and body temperature (abstract). Folia Primatologica 69, 403.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmid, J., 2000. Daily torpor in the gray mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus) in Madagascar: energetic consequences and biological significance. Oecologia 123, 175–183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmid, J., 2001. Daily torpor in free-ranging gray mouse lemurs (Microcebus murinus) in Madagascar. International Journal of Primatology 22, 1021–1031.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmid, J., Kappeler, P. M., 1998. Fluctuating sexual dimorphism and differential hibernation by sex in a primate, the gray mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 43, 125–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schulze, H., Meier, B., 1995. Behavior of captive Loris tardigradus nordicus: a qualitative description, including some information about morphological bases of behavior. In: Alterman, L., Doyle, G., Izard, M. (Eds.), Creatures of the Dark: The Nocturnal Primates. Plenum, New York, pp. 221–249.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shoshani, J., Groves, C. P., Simons, E. L., Gunnell, G. F., 1996. Primate phylogeny: morphological vs molecular results. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 5(1), 102–154.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simkin, A., Robin, G., 1974. Fracture formation in differing collagen fiber pattern of compact bone. Journal of Biomechanics 7, 183–188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simons, E. L., 1997. Discovery of the smallest Fayum Egyptian primates (Anchomomyini, Adapidae). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 94, 180–184.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simons, E. L., Rasmussen, D. T., Gingerich, P. D., 1995. New cercomoniine adapid from Fayum, Egypt. Journal of Human Evolution 29, 577–589.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, I. J., Tonna, E. A., Gandel, C. P., 1974. A comparative histological study of mammalian bone. Journal of Morphology 144, 4213–4438.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skedros, J. G., Hunt, K. J., 2004. Does the degree of laminarity correlate with site-specific differences in collagen fibre orientation in primary bone? An evaluation in the turkey ulna diaphysis. Journal of Anatomy 205(2), 121–134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, R. J., Jungers, W. L., 1997. Body mass in comparative primatology. Journal of Human Evolution 32, 523–559.

    Google Scholar 

  • Starck, J. M., Chinsamy, A., 2002. Bone microstructure and developmental plasticity in birds and other dinosaurs. Journal of Morphology 254(3), 232–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, J., Edgerton, V., Mitton, S., 1971. Gross anatomy of hindlimb skeletal system of the Galago senegalensis. Primates 12, 313–321.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, J., Mitton, S., Edgerton, V., 1972. Gross anatomy of hindlimb skeletal muscles of the Galago senegalensis. Primates 13, 83–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suckling, J. A., Suckling, E. E., Walker, A. C., 1969. Suggested function of the vascular bundles in the limbs of Perodicticus potto. Nature 221, 379–380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sussman, R. W., Kinzey, W. G., 1984. The ecological role of the Callitrichidae: a review. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 64, 419–449.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swartz, S. M., Bertram, J. E. A., Biewener, A. A., 1989. Telemetered in vivo strain analysis of locomotor mechanics of brachiating gibbons. Nature 342, 270–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • Szalay, F. S., 1981. Phylogeny and the problem of adaptive significance: the case of the earliest primates. Folia Primatologica 36, 157–182.

    Google Scholar 

  • Szalay, F. S., 2000. Function and adaptation in paleontology and phylogenetics: why do we omit Darwin? Palaeontologia Electronica 3(2), 1–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Szalay, F. S., Dagosto, M., 1980. Locomotor adaptations as reflected on the humerus of paleogene primates. Folia Primatologica 34, 1–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Szalay, F. S., Dagosto, M., 1988. Evolution of hallucial grasping in the primates. Journal of Human Evolution 17, 1–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Szalay, F. S., Rosenberger, A. L., Dagosto, M., 1987. Diagnosis and differentiation of the Order Primates. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 30, 75–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Szalay, F. S., Sargis, E. J., 2001. Model-based analysis of postcranial osteology of marsupials from the Palaeocene of Itaboraí (Brazil) and the phylogenies and biogeography of Metatheria. Geodiversitas 23(2), 139–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Terranova, C. J., 1995a. Functional morphology of leaping behaviors in galagids: associations between landing limb use and diaphyseal geometry. In: Alterman, L., Doyle, G. A., Izard, M. K. (Eds.), Creatures of the Dark: The Nocturnal Prosimians. Plenum, New York, pp. 473–493.

    Google Scholar 

  • Terranova, C. J., 1995b. Leaping behaviors and the functional morphology of strepsirhine primate long bones. Folia Primatologica 61, 181–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Terranova, C. J., 1996. Variation in the leaping of lemurs. American Journal of Primatology 40, 145–165.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turnquist, J. E., Schmitt, D., Rose, M. D., Cant, J. G. H., 1999. Pendular motion in the brachiation of captive Lagothrix and Ateles. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 48(4), 263–281.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vincentelli, R., Evans, F. G., 1971. Relations among mechanical properties, collagen fibers, and calcification in adult human cortical bone. Journal of Biomechanics 4, 193–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vincentelli, R., Grigorov, M., 1985. The effects of Haversian remodeling on the tensile properties of human cortical bone. Journal of Biomechanics 18, 201–207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, A., 1969. The locomotion of lorises, with special reference to the potto. East African Wildlife Journal 7, 1–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, A., 1974. Locomotor adaptations in past and present prosimian primates. In: Jenkins, F. A. Jr. (Ed.), Primate Locomotion. Academic, New York, pp. 349–381.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, A., 1979. Prosimian locomotor behavior. In: Martin, R. D., Doyle, G. A. (Eds.), The Study of Prosimian Behavior. Academic, New York, pp. 543–565.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warshaw, J., 2007. Primate bone microstructural variability: relationships to life history, mechanical adaptation and phylogeny. Ph.D. dissertation, The City University of New York, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watts, E. S., 1990. Evolutionary trends in primate growth and development. In: Rousseau, C. J. de (Ed.), Primate Life History and Evolution. Wiley-Liss, New York, pp. 89–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weisenseel, K. A., Izard, M. K., Nash, L. T., Ange, R. L., Poorman-Allen, P., 1998. A comparison of reproduction in two species of Nycticebus. Folia Primatologica 69, 321–324.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yoder, A. D., Irwin, J. A., Payseur, B. A., 2001. Failure of the ILD to determine data combinability for slow loris phylogeny. Systematic Biology 50(3), 408–424.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2008 Springer Science + Business Media B.V

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Warshaw, J. (2008). Comparative Primate Bone Microstructure: Records of Life History, Function, and Phylogeny. In: Sargis, E.J., Dagosto, M. (eds) Mammalian Evolutionary Morphology. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6997-0_18

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics