Skip to main content

Protecting the Vulnerable: Genetic Testing and Screening for Parentage, Immigration, and Aboriginality

  • Chapter
The Moral, Social, and Commercial Imperatives of Genetic Testing and Screening

Part of the book series: International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine ((LIME,volume 30))

As healthcare professions, law enforcement agencies, governments, employers, insurance companies, and others rush to utilize genetic information about individuals with whom they interact or have relationships, conflict may arise between different stakeholders. In such circumstances, it may be the function of ethics to balance competing interests and activities, explore alternatives and options, and protect the vulnerable from harm. Ethics may explore and advise on issues of the moral life, but sometimes it needs the backup of constructive policy developments and the investigative, protective, and guiding forces of the law to achieve a more mutually beneficial outcome. This chapter on DNA kinship testing is an example of such merging of forces, namely ethics, policy, and law to protect the vulnerable. It portrays the effects of unethical behaviour on three different stakeholders and makes some recommendations on how to re-establish and protect the moral life.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Sweetman, T. 2004. Children suffer dad’s vengeance. The Courier-Mail, 2 July 2004, 17.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Healy, K. 2004. Not my son, claims dad. Sunday Herald Sun, 27 June 2004, available at <http://www.heraldsun.news.com.au/printpage/0,5481,9965262,00.html>, cited 18 July 2004.

  3. Sweetman, ibid.cit.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Magill v Magill [2005] VSCA 51 (17 March 2005).

    Google Scholar 

  5. Healy, ibid.cit.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Ritchie, K. 2005. Court Overturns Paternity Judgement. Transcript. Thursday, 17 March, Radio National, 5.10 pm, available at <http://www.abc.net.au/pm/content/2005/s1326090. htm>, cited 17 September 2005.

  7. Smith, D. 2000. Mothers kept in the dark on paternity tests. The Sydney Morning Herald, 27 March 2000, In: Australian Law Reform Commission, ALRC 96: Essentially Yours: The Protection of Human Genetic Information in Australia, 2003, Section 35.44, available at <http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/alrc/publications/reports/96/>, cited 5 April 2004.

  8. ALRC 96, ibid., section 35.44.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Ibid., section 35.156 mentions 103 cases in 2000–2001.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Paternity testing can also be used to prove maternity. But these cases are rare. This might be the case where a child has been separated from his/her mother shortly after birth, or where maternity needs to be proven in the context of immigration.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Sussman, L. N. 1976. Paternity Testing by Blood Grouping. Springfield, MA: Thomas. For a diagrammatic explanation see: Natural Toxins Research Center. Classnotes. Blood Group Antigens: The History Behind the Blood Group in Humans. Kingsville, TX: A&M University, available at <http://ntri.tamuk.edu/ immunology/blood.html>, cited 19 July 2004.

  12. Opeskin, B. 2002. Ten signposts to better law reform in relation to human genetic information. Conference Paper. Einshac and the Istituto di Psicolgia Conference, Rome, 21–22 March, available at<http://www.alrc.gov.au/events/speeches/BRO/20020322.htm>, cited 8 July 2004.

  13. The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) is an independent statutory authority that allocates Commonwealth funding for medical research, provides guidelines and advice on matters relating to human health, healthcare, public and medical health research, and health ethics, and promotes community debate on certain issues. National Health and Medical Research Council Act 1992. Section 7, available at <http://scaleplus.- law.gov.au/ html/pasteact/0/379/0/ PA000130.htm>, cited 7 July 2004.

  14. ALRC 96, 2003, ibid., Terms of Reference.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Opeskin, ibid..

    Google Scholar 

  16. Ibid.

    Google Scholar 

  17. ALRC 96, 2003, ibid., section 12.1.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Smith, D. 2000. Mothers kept in the dark on paternity tests. The Sydney Morning Herald, 27 March 2000. Cited in ALRC 96, 2003., ibid., section 35.159.

    Google Scholar 

  19. However, a court can overrule the child’s decision if it finds the decision as not to be in the interest of the child. But most people who ask for paternity testing of their offspring shy away from the court system, because they fear losing and humiliation, because they perceive the family court to be biased against males, and because of costs. However, costs can be kept to a minimum by applying not to a court but instead to a Federal Magistrate, who will assess the application and determine whether the person has an ‘‘honest, bona fide and reasonable doubt as to the child’s parentage.’’ ALRC 96, 2003. ibid., sections 35.149 and 35.151.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Australian Law Reform Commission and Australian Health Ethics Committee Report. Essentially Yours: The Protection of Human Genetic Information in Australia. Government Response to Recommendations, 2005. http://www.ag.gov.av/agd/www/agdhome.nsf/HlDocs/ DFC5F37153385647CA2570CA0076BC77? Open Document, 20 March 2006.

  21. Essentially Yours (2003), op.cit. section 35.157.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Ibid., section 35.170.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Ibid., Recommendations 12–1. and 12–2.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Government Response to Recommendations, 2005, op. cit. response to recommendation 12.1.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Essentially Yours (2003), op. cit., section 12.55.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Ibid., sections 12.14–12.16 and 12.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Commonwealth (‘‘Cth’’).

    Google Scholar 

  28. Privacy Act 1988, available at <http://www.privacy.gov.au/publications/privacy88_030504. pdf>, cited 20 July 2004. The Privacy Act 1988 provides a privacy framework for Commonwealth agencies and agencies residing in the Australian Capital Territory. It also applies to private sector organizations earning more than $3 million annually, health service providers, and small businesses, which trade in personal information. The Act covers primarily the ‘‘collection, use and disclosure, quality and security of personal information.’’ Lawlink NSW, available at <http://www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/lawlink/privacynsw/ll_pnsw.nsf/ pages / PNSW_03_fedprivact>, cited 6 August 2004.

  29. Essentially Yours, 2003, op. cit., section 35.116.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Australian Government, Attorney-General’s Department, 2001/2003. National Privacy Principles, available at <http://www.law.gov.au/WWW/AGDHOME.nsf/AllDocs/ RWP4F5346B13D041F55CA256BB40023EB65?OpenDocument>, cited 10 July 2004.

  31. Essentially Yours, 2003, op. cit., section 12.23.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Ibid., section 12.2.

    Google Scholar 

  33. National Association of Testing Authorities, Homepage, available at <http://www.nata.asn. au/>, cited 20 July 2004.

  34. Essentially Yours, 2003, op. cit., sections 11.25–11.49 and Recommendations 11-1–11-4.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Essentially Yours, 2003, op. cit., recommendation 35–4.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Ibid., Recommendation 35–101.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs. Migrating as a family member, available at<http://www.immi.gov.migration/family/index.htm>, cited 25 July 2004.

  38. Graycar, A. 2000. Human smuggling. Speech presented at: Symposium on Human Smuggling. Centre for Criminology. The University of Hong Kong. 19 February 2000, available at <http://www.aic.gov.au/conferences/other/graycar_adam/2000–02-humansmuggling.html>, cited 18 July 2004.

  39. Graycar, A. 2002. Identity-related fraud: risks and remedies. Institute of Criminology Conference Paper, available at <http://www.aic.gov.au/conferences/other/graycar_adam/2002– 04-idfraud.pdf>, cited 10 July 2004.

  40. Australian Government. Attorney-General’s Department, 2004. Development of biometrics for border control. Media release, available at <http://www.ag.gov.au/www/budget Home2004.nsf/WebþPages/E7E7B479D869E837CA256E91000A03E3?OpenDocument>, cited 10 July 2004.

  41. No reliable statistical data are available. For an overview on trafficking in the sex industry, see Hearn, J. 2003. Trafficking and the Sex Industry: From Impunity to Protection. Current Issues Brief No. 28 2002–2003. Commonwealth of Australia, available at <http://www.aph. gov.au/library/pubs / cib/2002–03/03cib28.pdf>, cited 12 July 2004.

  42. Cuganesan, S. and Lacey, D. 2003. Identity fraud in Australia: an evaluation of its nature, cost and extent, available at <http://www.austrac.gov.au/publications/identity_fraud/ identity_fraud_extract.pdf>, cited 11 July 2004.

  43. Essentially Yours, 2003, op. cit., section 37.3.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs, 2004. DNA Testing, available at <http://www.immi.gov.au/migration/family/dna.htm>, cited 26 July.

  45. While DIMIA rarely uses genetic testing to establish identity, Salleh (2005) reports that a recent survey exploring the attitudes of Australians towards genetic testing seems to indicate that a substantial proportion (37%) of the Australian public would agree with genetic testing on immigrants, even though more than half would not want to undergo genetic testing for employment or insurance purposes themselves. Salleh, A. 2005. Support for DNA tests on migrants. ABC Science Online, 15 August 2005, available at <http://abc.net.au/science/news/ health/HealthRepublish_1436435.htm>, cited 17 September 2005.

  46. Essentially Yours, 2003, op. cit., section 37.16.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Ibid., section 37.17.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Ibid.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Barlow-Stewart, K., Treloar, S., and Taylor, S. 2004. Knowing your genetic information— Freedom, burden or power. Paper presented at a workshop sponsored by the Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia, Canberra, 7–8 June, available at <http://www.assa.edu.au/ policy/papers/2004/ genetic.pdf>, cited 18 September 2005.

  50. Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs, Procedures Advice Manual (PAM3) (1994–2002), DIMIA, Canberra Div 1.2 r 1.12, Member of the Family Unit. Cited in ALRC Report 96, 2003, ibid., section 37.12.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Essentially Yours, 2003, op. cit., section 37.30.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Ibid., section 37.35.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Ibid., Recommendation 37–1.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Ibid., section 37.13.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Ibid., Recommendation 37–2.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Ibid., section 37.36.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Ibid., section 37.62.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Johns, G. 2003. The gulf between aboriginal policies and aboriginal people in Australia, available at <http://www.bennelong.com.au/papers/Articles/chile/GaryJohnsChile.pdf>, cited 18 July 2004.

  59. National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from their Families (Australia). Bringing them home. Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sydney, 1997, Chapter. 2. Cited in De Plevitz, L. and Croft, L. 2003.. Aboriginality under the microscope: the biological descent test in Australian Law. QUT Law & Justice Journal, 3 (1): 13, available at <http://www.law.qut.edu.au/about/ljj/ editions/v3n1/ deplev_ full.jsp>, cited 17 July 2004.

  60. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 1994. Characteristics of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Population. Family and culture. 1997. Catalogue 4190.0, Canberra: AGPS. Cited in De Plevitz and Croft, ibid.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice Commissioner, Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission of Australia. 2003. Submission to the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child for their Day of General Discussion on the Rights of Indigenous Children: Issue 1: Identity and culture, available at <http://www.hreoc.gov.au/social_ justice/croc/sub1. htm>, cited 15 July 2004.

  62. Johnsky. 2003, op. cit., Johns believes that there is no guarantee that this approach will be successful either, believing that it may be divisive and again lead to separation.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Trewin, D. 2003. Year Book Australia. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, 247.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Ibid., 300–301.

    Google Scholar 

  65. RoyalCommissioninto Aboriginal Deathsin Custody,NationalReport (1991),Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra [11.12.5], cited in Essentially Yours, 2003, op. cit., Chapter 36, p. 3.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Australian Law Reform Commission. The Recognition of Aboriginal Customary Laws, Report 31. 1986, Australian Government Publishing Service: Canberra [89].

    Google Scholar 

  67. Johnston, E. 1991. Royal commission into aboriginal deaths in custody. National Report. Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra [11.12.20]. Cited in ALRC 96, 2003, op. cit.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice Commissioner. 2003, ibid.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Australian Government. Department of the Parliamentary Library. 2000–2001. The definition of aboriginality. Research Note, Number 18, available at <http://www.aph.gov.au/ library/pubs/rn/2000–01/01rn18.pdf>, cited 18 July 2004.

  70. Reed, A. W. 1969. An Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Aboriginal Life. Brookvale: Literary Productions, 132.

    Google Scholar 

  71. De Plevitz, L. and Croft, L. 2003, op. cit.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Ibid.

    Google Scholar 

  73. ATSIC was created by the Australian Federal Parliament in 1992 in order, amongst others, to advise the minister on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander matters, and to formulate, implement, and monitor programmes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people; Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Act 1989 (Cth), available at <http://www.austlii.edu. au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/aatsica1989478/s7.html>, cited 17 July 2004.

  74. Essentially Yours, 2003, op. cit., section 36.23.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Bevilacqua, S. 2002. Aboriginality under the microscope, Sunday Tasmanian, 17 February 2002, 6–7. Cited in De Plevitz, L. and Croft, L. 2003, op. cit.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Lewis, R. 2003. Human Genetics: Concepts and Applications, 5th edn. New York: McGraw- Hill, 7.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, Submission G286, 16 December 2002. Essentially Yours, op. cit., section 36.63.

    Google Scholar 

  78. Office of the High Commissioner of Human Rights. 1989. Convention (No. 169) concerning indigenous and tribal peoples in independent countries. Entered into force on 5 September 1991, available at <http:// www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/62.htm>, cited 12 July 2004.

  79. Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies. Submission G286, 16 December 2002. Cited in Essentially Yours, 2003, op. cit., page 2.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Essentially Yours, 2003, op. cit., section 36.71.

    Google Scholar 

  81. Ibid., section 36.74.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2006 Springer

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Gesche, A.H. (2006). Protecting the Vulnerable: Genetic Testing and Screening for Parentage, Immigration, and Aboriginality. In: Betta, M. (eds) The Moral, Social, and Commercial Imperatives of Genetic Testing and Screening. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 30. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-4619-3_11

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics