Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Global Epidemiology of West Nile Virus

  • Chapter
West Nile Encephalitis Virus Infection

Part of the book series: Emerging Infectious Diseases of the 21 Century ((EIDC))

Abstract

West Nile virus (WNV) exists in a bird–mosquito–bird cycle, with humans and horses as incidental hosts. The global epidemiology follows several patterns (1) widespread enzootic transmission throughout tropical Africa, the Caribbean, Central America, and northern South America without significant human or equine morbidity; (2) periodic human and equine outbreaks in the Mediterranean Basin, Russia, and South Africa separated by years of low-level enzootic activity; (3) sporadic human disease in India; (4) little or no WNV enzootic activity in Southeast and East Asia and no human cases; (5) sporadic human disease and small outbreaks in Australia; and (6) repeated annual outbreaks in North America. The biology underlying these patterns is poorly understood, but probably results from a complex interaction of climate and weather, mosquito vectors, avian hosts, viral strain, other circulating flaviviruses, and other undefined factors. The virus was first detected in the Americas in New York City in 1999 and spread to Argentina within 7 years. The high infection incidence in North America has resulted in new modes of transmission, such as blood transfusion and organ donation. Older age and certain immunosuppressive conditions confer a high risk of neuroin-vasive disease after infection.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Alonto, A. M., Aronoff, D. M., and Malani, P. N. 2003. West Nile virus meningitis in patient with common variable immunodeficiency. Emerg Infect Dis 9:1353–1354

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Armali, Z., Ramadan, R., Chlebowski, A., and Azzam, Z. S. 2003. West Nile meningo-encephalitis infection in a kidney transplant recipient. Transplant Proc 35:2935–2936

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Autorino, G. L., Battisti, A., Deubel, V., Ferrari, G., Forletta, R., Giovannini, A., Lelli, R., Murri, S., and Scicluna, M. T. 2002. West Nile virus epidemic in horses, Tuscany region, Italy. Emerg Infect Dis 8:1372–1378

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bakonyi, T., Hubalek, Z., Rudolf, I., and Nowotny, N. 2005. Novel flavivirus or new lineage of West Nile virus, central Europe. Emerg Infect Dis 11:225–231

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bakonyi, T., Ivanics, E., Erdelyi, K., Ursu, K., Ferenczi, E., Weissenbock, H., and Nowotny, N. 2006. Lineage 1 and 2 strains of encephalitic West Nile virus, central Europe. Emerg Infect Dis 12:618–623

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barshes, N. R., Agee, E. E., Zgabay, T., Brunicardi, F. C., Goss, J. A., and DeBakey, M. E. 2006. West Nile virus encephalopathy following pancreatic islet transplantation. Am J Transplant 6:3037

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Batsis, J. A., and Phy, M. P. 2005. West Nile virus meningitis in a chronic immunosuppressed patient with rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Rheumatol 24:548–550

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beasley, D. W., Davis, C. T., Estrada-Franco, J., Navarro-Lopez, R., Campomanes-Cortes, A., Tesh, R. B., Weaver, S. C., and Barrett, A. D. 2004. Genome sequence and attenuating mutations in West Nile virus isolate from Mexico. Emerg Infect Dis 10:2221–2224

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beatty, M. E., Hunsperger, E., Long, E., Schurch, J., Jain, S., Colindres, R., Lerebours, G., Bernard, Y. M., Dobbins, J. G., Brown, M., and Clark, G. G. 2007. Mosquitoborne infections after Hurricane Jeanne, Haiti, 2004. Emerg Infect Dis 13:308–310

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bernkopf, H., Levine, S., and Nerson, R. 1953. Isolation of West Nile virus in Israel. J Infect Dis 93:207–218

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Biggerstaff, B. J., and Petersen, L. R. 2003. Estimated risk of transmission of the West Nile virus through blood transfusion in the US, 2002. Transfusion 43:1007–1017

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blackmore, C. G., Stark, L. M., Jeter, W. C., Oliveri, R. L., Brooks, R. G., Conti, L. A., and Wiersma, S. T. 2003. Surveillance results from the first West Nile virus transmission season in Florida, 2001. Am J Trop Med Hyg 69:141–150

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blitvich, B. J., Fernandez-Salas, I., Contreras-Cordero, J. F., Marlenee, N. L., Gonzalez-Rojas, J. I., Komar, N., Gubler, D. J., Calisher, C. H., and Beaty, B. J. 2003. Serologic evidence of West Nile virus infection in horses, Coahuila State, Mexico. Emerg Infect Dis 9:853–856

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bode, A. V., Sejvar, J. J., Pape, W. J., Campbell, G. L., and Marfin, A. A. 2006. West Nile virus disease: A descriptive study of 228 patients hospitalized in a 4-county region of Colorado in 2003. Clin Infect Dis 42:1234–1240

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bosch, I., Herrera, F., Navarro, J. C., Lentino, M., Dupuis, A., Maffei, J., Jones, M., Fernandez, E., Perez, N., Perez-Eman, J., Guimaraes, A. E., Barrera, R., Valero, N., Ruiz, J., Velasquez, G., Martinez, J., Comach, G., Komar, N., Spielman, A., and Kramer, L. 2007. West Nile virus, Venezuela. Emerg Infect Dis 13:651–653

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brault, A. C., Langevin, S. A., Bowen, R. A., Panella, N. A., Biggerstaff, B. J., Miller, B. R., and Komar, N. 2004. Differential virulence of West Nile strains for American crows. Emerg Infect Dis 10:2161–2168

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brault, A. C., Huang, C. Y., Langevin, S. A., Kinney, R. M., Bowen, R. A., Ramey, W. N., Panella, N. A., Holmes, E. C., Powers, A. M., and Miller, B. R. 2007. A single positively selected West Nile viral mutation confers increased virogenesis in American crows . Nat Genet 39:1162–1166

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. A., Factor, D. L., Tkachenko, N., Templeton, S. M., Crall, N. D., Pape, W. J., Bauer, M. J., Ambruso, D., Dickey, W. C., and Marfin, A. A. 2007. West Nile viremic blood donors and risk factors for subsequent West Nile fever . Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 7(4):479–488

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brownstein, J. S., Rosen, H., Purdy, D., Miller, J. R., Merlino, M., Mostashari, F., and Fish, D. 2002 . Spatial analysis of West Nile virus: Rapid risk assessment of an introduced vector-borne zoonosis. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2:157–164

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buckley, A., Dawson, A., Moss, S. R., Hinsley, S. A., Bellamy, P. E., and Gould, E. A. 2003. Serological evidence of West Nile virus, Usutu virus and Sindbis virus infection of birds in the UK. J Gen Virol 84:2807–2817

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bunning, M. L., Bowen, R. A., Cropp, B., Sullivan, K., Davis, B., Komar, N., Godsey, M., Baker, D., Hettler, D., Holmes, D., and Mitchell, C. J. 2001. Experimental infection of horses with West Nile virus and their potential to infect mosquitoes and serve as amplifying hosts. Ann N Y Acad Sci 951:338–339

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bunning, M. L., Bowen, R. A., Cropp, C. B., Sullivan, K. G., Davis, B. S., Komar, N., Godsey, M. S., Baker, D., Hettler, D. L., Holmes, D. A., Biggerstaff, B. J., and Mitchell, C. J. 2002. Experimental infection of horses with West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 8:380–386

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Busch, M. P., Caglioti, S., Robertson, E. F., McAuley, J. D., Tobler, L. H., Kamel, H., Linnen, J. M., Shyamala, V., Tomasulo, P., and Kleinman, S. H. 2005. Screening the blood supply for West Nile virus RNA by nucleic acid amplification testing . N Engl J Med 353:460–467

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cantile, C., Di Guardo, G., Eleni, C., and Arispici, M. 2000. Clinical and neuropathological features of West Nile virus equine encephalomyelitis in Italy. Equine Vet J 32:31–35

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2001. Serosurveys for West Nile virus infection– New York and Connecticut counties, 2000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 50:37–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2002a. Intrauterine West Nile virus infection – New York, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 51:1135–1136

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2002b. Laboratory-acquired West Nile virus infections – United States, 2002 . MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 51:1133–1135

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2002c. Possible West Nile virus transmission to an infant through breast-feeding – Michigan, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 51:877–878

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2002d. Provisional surveillance summary of the West Nile virus epidemic – United States, January–November 2002 . MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 51:1129–1133

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2002e. West Nile Virus activity – United States, 2001. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 51:497–501

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2003. West Nile virus infection among turkey breeder farm workers – Wisconsin, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 52:1017–1019

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2004. Possible dialysis-related West Nile virus transmission – Georgia, 2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 53:738–739

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2005. West Nile virus infections in organ transplant recipients – New York and Pennsylvania, August–September, 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 54:1021–1023

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2007a. West Nile virus activity – United States, 2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 56:556–559

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2007b. West Nile virus transmission through blood transfusion – South Dakota, 2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 56:76–79

    Google Scholar 

  • Chan-Tack, K. M., and Forrest, G. 2006. West Nile virus meningoencephalitis and acute flaccid paralysis after infliximab treatment. J Rheumatol 33:191–192

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chowers, M. Y., Lang, R., Nassar, F., Ben-David, D., Giladi, M., Rubinshtein, E., Itzhaki, A., Mishal, J., Siegman-Igra, Y., Kitzes, R., Pick, N., Landau, Z., Wolf, D., Bin, H., Mendelson, E., Pitlik, S. D., and Weinberger, M. 2001. Clinical characteristics of the West Nile fever outbreak, Israel, 2000. Emerg Infect Dis 7:675–678

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cruz, L., Cardenas, V. M., Abarca, M., Rodriguez, T., Reyna, R. F., Serpas, M. V., Fontaine, R. E., Beasley, D. W., Da Rosa, A. P., Weaver, S. C., Tesh, R. B., Powers, A. M., and Suarez-Rangel, G. 2005. Short report: Serological evidence of West Nile virus activity in El Salvador. Am J Trop Med Hyg 72:612–615

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cushing, M. M., Brat, D. J., Mosunjac, M. I., Hennigar, R. A., Jernigan, D. B., Lanciotti, R., Petersen, L. R., Goldsmith, C., Rollin, P. E., Shieh, W. J., Guarner, J., and Zaki, S. R. 2004 . Fatal West Nile virus encephalitis in a renal transplant recipient . Am J Clin Pathol 121:26–31

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Darwish, M. A., and Ibrahim, A. H. 1971. Survey for antibodies to arboviruses in Egyptian sera. I. West Nile virus antihemagglutinins in human and animal sera . J Egypt Public Health Assoc 46:61–70

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Deardorff, E., Estrada-Franco, J., Brault, A. C., Navarro-Lopez, R., Campomanes-Cortes, A., Paz-Ramirez, P., Solis-Hernandez, M., Ramey, W. N., Davis, C. T., Beasley, D. W., Tesh, R. B., Barrett, A. D., and Weaver, S. C. 2006. Introductions of West Nile virus strains to Mexico. Emerg Infect Dis 12:314–318

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Del Giudice, P., Schuffenecker, I., Vandenbos, F., Counillon, E., and Zeller, H. 2004. Human West Nile virus, France. Emerg Infect Dis 10:1885–1886

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Depoortere, E., Kavle, J., Keus, K., Zeller, H., Murri, S., and Legros, D. 2004. Outbreak of West Nile virus causing severe neurological involvement in children, Nuba Mountains, Sudan, 2002. Trop Med Int Health 9:730–736

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeSalvo, D., Roy-Chaudhury, P., Peddi, R., Merchen, T., Konijetti, K., Gupta, M., Boardman, R., Rogers, C., Buell, J., Hanaway, M., Broderick, J., Smith, R., and Woodle, E. S. 2004 . West Nile virus encephalitis in organ transplant recipients: Another high-risk group for meningoencephalitis and death. Transplantation 77:466–469

    Google Scholar 

  • Drebot, M. A., Lindsay, R., Barker, I. K., Buck, P. A., Fearon, M., Hunter, F., Sockett, P., and Artsob, H. 2003. West Nile virus surveillance and diagnostics: A Canadian perspective. Can J Infect Dis 14:105–114

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dupuis, A. P., Marra, P. P., and Kramer, L. D. 2003. Serologic evidence of West Nile virus transmission, Jamaica, West Indies. Emerg Infect Dis 9:860–863

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dupuis, A. P., 2nd, Marra, P. P., Reitsma, R., Jones, M. J., Louie, K. L., and Kramer, L. D. 2005 . Serologic evidence for West Nile virus transmission in Puerto Rico and Cuba . Am J Trop Med Hyg 73:474–476

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elizondo-Quiroga, D., Davis, C. T., Fernandez-Salas, I., Escobar-Lopez, R., Velasco Olmos, D., Soto Gastalum, L. C., Aviles Acosta, M., Elizondo-Quiroga, A., Gonzalez-Rojas, J. I., Contreras Cordero, J. F., Guzman, H., Travassos da Rosa, A., Blitvich, B. J., Barrett, A. D., Beaty, B. J., and Tesh, R. B. 2005. West Nile virus isolation in human and mosquitoes, Mexico. Emerg Infect Dis 11:1449–1452

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Erdelyi, K., Ursu, K., Ferenczi, E., Szeredi, L., Ratz, F., Skare, J., and Bakonyi, T. 2007. Clinical and pathologic features of lineage 2 West Nile virus infections in birds of prey in Hungary. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 7:181–188

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Estrada-Franco, J. G., Navarro-Lopez, R., Beasley, D. W., Coffey, L., Carrara, A. S., Travassos da Rosa, A., Clements, T., Wang, E., Ludwig, G. V., Cortes, A. C., Ramirez, P. P., Tesh, R. B., Barrett, A. D., and Weaver, S. C. 2003. West Nile virus in Mexico: Evidence of widespread circulation since July 2002. Emerg Infect Dis 9:1604–1607

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez-Salas, I., Contreras-Cordero, J. F., Blitvich, B. J., Gonzalez-Rojas, J. I., Cavazos-Alvarez, A., Marlenee, N. L., Elizondo-Quiroga, A., Lorono-Pino, M. A., Gubler, D. J. , Cropp, B. C., Calisher, C. H., and Beaty, B. J. 2003. Serologic evidence of West Nile virus infection in birds, Tamaulipas State, Mexico. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 3:209–213

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fonseca, K., Prince, G. D., Bratvold, J., Fox, J. D., Pybus, M., Preksaitis, J. K., and Tilley, P. 2005. West Nile virus infection and conjunctival exposure. Emerg Infect Dis 11:1648–1649

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • George, S., Gourie-Devi, M., Rao, J. A., Prasad, S. R., and Pavri, K. M. 1984. Isolation of West Nile virus from the brains of children who had died of encephalitis . Bull World Health Org 62:879–882

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Glass, W. G., McDermott, D. H., Lim, J. K., Lekhong, S., Yu, S. F., Frank, W. A ., Pape , J. , Cheshier, R. C., and Murphy, P. M. 2006. CCR5 deficiency increases risk of symptomatic West Nile virus infection. J Exp Med 203:35–40

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hardinger, K. L., Miller, B., Storch, G. A., Desai, N. M., and Brennan, D. C. 2003. West Nile virus-associated meningoencephalitis in two chronically immunosuppressed renal transplant recipients. Am J Transplant 3:1312–1315

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harrington, T., Kuehnert, M. J., Kamel, H., Lanciotti, R. S., Hand, S., Currier, M., Chamberland, M. E., Petersen, L. R., and Marfin, A. A. 2003. West Nile virus infection transmitted by blood transfusion. Transfusion 43:1018–1022

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hiatt, B., DesJardin, L., Carter, T., Gingrich, R., Thompson, C., and de Magalhaes-Silverman, M. 2003 . A fatal case of West Nile virus infection in a bone marrow transplant recipient . Clin Infect Dis 37:e129–e131

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hinckley, A. F., O'Leary, D. R., and Hayes, E. B. 2007. Transmission of West Nile virus through human breast milk seems to be rare. Pediatrics 119:e666–e671

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hong, D. S., Jacobson, K. L., Raad, II, de Lima, M., Anderlini, P., Fuller, G. N., Ippoliti, C., Cool, R. M., Leeds, N. E., Narvios, A., Han, X. Y., Padula, A., Champlin, R. E., and Hosing, C. 2003. West Nile encephalitis in 2 hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients: Case series and literature review. Clin Infect Dis 37:1044–1049

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hubalek, Z., and Halouzka, J. 1999. West Nile fever – a reemerging mosquito-borne viral disease in Europe. Emerg Infect Dis 5:643–650

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hurlbut, H. S., Rizk, F., Taylor, R. M., and Work, T. H. 1956. A study of the ecology of West Nile virus in Egypt. Am J Trop Med Hyg 5:579–620

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Iwamoto, M., Jernigan, D. B., Guasch, A., Trepka, M. J., Blackmore, C. G., Hellinger, W. C., Pham, S. M., Zaki, S., Lanciotti, R. S., Lance-Parker, S. E., DiazGranados, C. A., Winquist, A. G., Perlino, C. A., Wiersma, S., Hillyer, K. L., Goodman, J. L., Marfin, A. A., Chamberland, M. E., and Petersen, L. R. 2003. Transmission of West Nile virus from an organ donor to four transplant recipients. N Engl J Med 348:2196–2203

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, B. W., Kosoy, O., Martin, D. A., Noga, A. J., Russell, B. J., Johnson, A. A., and Petersen, L. R. 2005. West Nile virus infection and serologic response among persons previously vaccinated against yellow fever and Japanese encephalitis viruses . Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 5:137–145

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jupp, P. G. 2001. The ecology of West Nile virus in South Africa and the occurrence of outbreaks in humans. Ann N Y Acad Sci 951:143–152

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kleinman, S., Glynn, S. A., Busch, M., Todd, D., Powell, L., Pietrelli, L., Nemo, G., Schreiber, G., Bianco, C., and Katz, L. 2005. The 2003 West Nile virus United States epidemic: The America's Blood Centers experience. Transfusion 45:469–479

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kleinschmidt-DeMasters, B. K., Marder, B. A., Levi, M. E., Laird, S. P., McNutt, J. T., Escott, E. J., Everson, G. T., and Tyler, K. L. 2004. Naturally acquired West Nile virus encepha-lomyelitis in transplant recipients: Clinical, laboratory, diagnostic, and neuropathological features. Arch Neurol 61:1210–1220

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Komar, O., Robbins, M. B., Klenk, K., Blitvich, B. J., Marlenee, N. L., Burkhalter, K. L., Gubler, D. J., Gonzalvez, G., Pena, C. J., Peterson, A. T., and Komar, N. 2003. West Nile virus transmission in resident birds, Dominican Republic. Emerg Infect Dis 9:1299–1302

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar, D., Drebot, M. A., Wong, S. J., Lim, G., Artsob, H., Buck, P., and Humar, A. 2004a. A seroprevalence study of West Nile virus infection in solid organ transplant recipients . Am J Transplant 4:1883–1888

    Google Scholar 

  • Kumar, D., Prasad, G. V., Zaltzman, J., Levy, G. A., and Humar, A. 2004b. Community-acquired West Nile virus infection in solid-organ transplant recipients . Transplantation 77:399–402

    Google Scholar 

  • LaDeau, S. L., Kilpatrick, A. M., and Marra, P. P. 2007. West Nile virus emergence and large-scale declines of North American bird populations. Nature 447:710–713

    Google Scholar 

  • Lanciotti, R. S., Roehrig, J. T., Deubel, V., Smith, J., Parker, M., Steele, K., Crise, B., Volpe, K. E., Crabtree, M. B., Scherret, J. H., Hall, R. A., MacKenzie, J. S., Cropp, C. B., Panigrahy, B., Ostlund, E., Schmitt, B., Malkinson, M., Banet, C., Weissman, J., Komar, N . , Savage , H. M., Stone, W., McNamara, T., and Gubler, D. J. 1999. Origin of the West Nile virus responsible for an outbreak of encephalitis in the northeastern United States . Science 286:2333–2337

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lanciotti, R. S., Ebel, G. D., Deubel, V., Kerst, A. J., Murri, S., Meyer, R., Bowen, M., McKinney, N., Morrill, W. E., Crabtree, M. B., Kramer, L. D., and Roehrig, J. T. 2002. Complete genome sequences and phylogenetic analysis of West Nile virus strains isolated from the United States, Europe, and the Middle East. Virology 298:96–105

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lefrancois, T., Blitvich, B. J., Pradel, J., Molia, S., Vachiery, N., Pallavicini, G., Marlenee, N. L., Zientara, S., Petitclerc, M., and Martinez, D. 2005. West Nile virus surveillance, Guadeloupe, 2003–2004. Emerg Infect Dis 11:1100–1103

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Linke, S., Niedrig, M., Kaiser, A., Ellerbrok, H., Muller, K., Muller, T., Conraths, F. J., Muhle, R. U., Schmidt, D., Koppen, U., Bairlein, F., Berthold, P., and Pauli, G. 2007. Serologic evidence of West Nile virus infections in wild birds captured in Germany . Am J Trop Med Hyg 77:358–364

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lorono-Pino, M. A., Blitvich, B. J., Farfan-Ale, J. A., Puerto, F. I., Blanco, J. M., Marlenee, N. L., Rosado-Paredes, E. P., Garcia-Rejon, J. E., Gubler, D. J., Calisher, C. H., and Beaty , B . J. 2003 . Serologic evidence of West Nile virus infection in horses, Yucatan State, Mexico . Emerg Infect Dis 9:857–859

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lvov, D. K., Butenko, A. M., Gromashevsky, V. L., Kovtunov, A. I., Prilipov, A. G., Kinney, R., Aristova, V. A., Dzharkenov, A. F. , Samokhvalov, E. I., Savage, H. M., Shchelkanov, M. Y. , Galkina, I. V. , Deryabin, P. G., Gubler, D. J., Kulikova, L. N., Alkhovsky, S. K., Moskvina, T. M., Zlobina, L. V. , Sadykova, G. K., Shatalov, A. G., Lvov, D. N., Usachev, V. E., and Voronina, A. G. 2004. West Nile virus and other zoonotic viruses in Russia: Examples of emerging–reemerging situations. Arch Virol Suppl 85–96

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackenzie, J. S., Gubler, D. J., and Petersen, L. R. 2004. Emerging flaviviruses: The spread and resurgence of Japanese encephalitis, West Nile and dengue viruses . Nat Med 10:S98–109

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Malkinson, M., and Banet, C. 2002. The role of birds in the ecology of West Nile virus in Europe and Africa. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 267:309–322

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Malkinson, M., Banet, C., Weisman, Y., Pokamunski, S., King, R., Drouet, M. T., and Deubel, V. 2002 . Introduction of West Nile virus in the Middle East by migrating white storks . Emerg Infect Dis 8:392–397

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marfin, A. A., Petersen, L. R., Eidson, M., Miller, J., Hadler, J., Farello, C., Werner, B., Campbell, G. L., Layton, M., Smith, P., Bresnitz, E., Cartter, M., Scaletta, J., Obiri, G., Bunning, M., Craven, R. C., Roehrig, J. T., Julian, K. G., Hinten, S. R., and Gubler , D. J. 2001 . Widespread West Nile virus activity, eastern United States, 2000 . Emerg Infect Dis 7:730–735

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marlenee, N. L., Lorono-Pino, M. A., Beaty, B. J., and Blitvich, B. J. 2004. Detection of antibodies to West Nile and Saint Louis encephalitis viruses in horses . Salud Publica Mexico 46:373–375

    Google Scholar 

  • Mattar, S., Edwards, E., Laguado, J., Gonzales, M., Alvarez, J., Komar, N. 2005. West Nile virus antibodies in Colombian horses. Emerg Infect Dis 11:1496–1497

    Google Scholar 

  • Miramontes, R., Jr., Lafferty, W. E., Lind, B. K., and Oberle, M. W. 2006. Is agricultural activity linked to the incidence of human West Nile virus? Am J Prev Med 30:160–163

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morales, M. A., Barrandeguy, M., Fabbri, C., Garcia, J. B., Vissani, A., Trono, K., Gutierrez, G., Pigretti, S., Menchaca, H., Garrido, N., Taylor, N., Fernandez, F., Levis, S., and Enria, D. 2006 . West Nile virus isolation from equines in Argentina, 2006 . Emerg Infect Dis 12:1559–1561

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morales-Betoulle, M. E., Morales, H., Blitvich, B. J., Powers, A. M., Davis, E. A., Klein, R., and Cordon-Rosales, C. 2006. West Nile virus in horses, Guatemala. Emerg Infect Dis 12:1038–1039

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mostashari, F., Bunning, M. L., Kitsutani, P. T., Singer, D. A., Nash, D., Cooper , M. J. , Katz , N. , Liljebjelke, K. A., Biggerstaff, B. J., Fine, A. D., Layton, M. C., Mullin, S. M., Johnson, A. J., Martin, D. A., Hayes, E. B., and Campbell, G. L. 2001. Epidemic West Nile encephalitis, New York, 1999: Results of a household-based seroepidemiological survey . Lancet 358:261–264

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Murgue, B., Murri, S., Triki, H., Deubel, V., and Zeller, H. G. 2001a. West Nile in the Mediterranean basin: 1950–2000. Ann N Y Acad Sci 951:117–126

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Murgue, B., Murri, S., Zientara, S., Durand, B., Durand, J. P., and Zeller, H. 2001b. West Nile outbreak in horses in southern France, 2000: The return after 35 years . Emerg Infect Dis 7:692–696

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Murgue , B. , Zeller , H. , and Deubel , V. 2002 . The ecology and epidemiology of West Nile virus in Africa, Europe and Asia. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 267:195–221

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, K., Baraniuk, S., Resnick, M., Arafat, R., Kilborn, C., Cain, K., Shallenberger, R., York, T. L., Martinez, D., Hellums, J. S., Hellums, D., Malkoff, M., Elgawley , N . , McNeely, W., Khuwaja, S. A., and Tesh, R. B. 2006. Risk factors for encephalitis and death from West Nile virus infection. Epidemiol Infect 134:1325–1332

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naficy, K., and Saidi, S. 1970. Serological survey on viral antibodies in Iran. Trop Geogr Med 22:183–188

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nash, D., Mostashari, F., Fine, A., Miller, J., O'Leary, D., Murray, K., Huang, A., Rosenberg, A., Greenberg, A., Sherman, M., Wong, S., and Layton, M. 2001. The outbreak of West Nile virus infection in the New York City area in 1999. N Engl J Med 344:1807–1814

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nir, Y. D. 1959. Airborne West Nile virus infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg 8:537–539

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • O'Leary, D. R., Marfin, A. A., Montgomery, S. P., Kipp, A. M., Lehman, J. A., Biggerstaff, B. J., Elko, V. L., Collins, P. D., Jones, J. E., and Campbell, G. L. 2004. The epidemic of West Nile virus in the United States, 2002. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 4:61–70

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O'Leary, D. R., Kuhn, S., Kniss, K. L., Hinckley, A. F., Rasmussen, S. A., Pape, W. J., Kightlinger, L. K., Beecham, B. D., Miller, T. K., Neitzel, D. F., Michaels, S. R., Campbell, G. L., Lanciotti, R. S., and Hayes, E. B. 2006. Birth outcomes following West Nile virus infection of pregnant women in the United States: 2003–2004 . Pediatrics 117:e537–e545

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Orton, S. L., Stramer, S. L., and Dodd, R. Y. 2006. Self-reported symptoms associated with West Nile virus infection in RNA-positive blood donors. Transfusion 46:272–277

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Paisley, J. E., Hinckley, A. F., O', D. R., Kramer, W. C., Lanciotti, R. S., Campbell, G. L., and Hayes, E. B. 2006. West Nile virus infection among pregnant women in a northern Colorado community, 2003 to 2004. Pediatrics 117:814–820

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patnaik, J. L., Harmon, H., and Vogt, R. L. 2006. Follow-up of 2003 human West Nile virus infections, Denver, Colorado. Emerg Infect Dis 12:1129–1131

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paul, S. D., Murthy, D. P., and Das, M. 1970. Isolation of West Nile virus from a human case of febrile illness. Indian J Med Res 58:1177–1179

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pealer, L. N., Marfin, A. A., Petersen, L. R., Lanciotti, R. S., Page, P. L., Stramer, S. L., Stobierski, M. G., Signs, K., Newman, B., Kapoor, H., Goodman, J. L., and Chamberland, M. E. 2003. Transmission of West Nile virus through blood transfusion in the United States in 2002. N Engl J Med 349:1236–1245

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pepperell, C., Rau, N., Krajden, S., Kern, R., Humar, A., Mederski, B., Simor, A., Low, D. E., McGeer, A., Mazzulli, T., Burton, J., Jaigobin, C., Fearon, M., Artsob, H., Drebot, M. A., Halliday, W., and Brunton, J. 2003. West Nile virus infection in 2002: Morbidity and mortality among patients admitted to hospital in southcentral Ontario . Can Med Assoc J 168:1399–1405

    Google Scholar 

  • Petersen, L. R., and Epstein, J. S. 2005. Problem solved? West Nile virus and transfusion safety. N Engl J Med 353:516–517

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Petersen , L. R. , and Hayes , E. B. 2004 . Westward ho? – The spread of West Nile virus . N Engl J Med 351:2257–2259

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Platonov, A. E. 2001. West Nile encephalitis in Russia 1999–2001: Were we ready? Are we ready? Ann N Y Acad Sci 951:102–116

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Platonov, A. E., Shipulin, G. A., Shipulina, O. Y., Tyutyunnik, E. N., Frolochkina, T. I., Lanciotti, R. S., Yazyshina, S., Platonova, O. V., Obukhov, I. L., Zhukov, A. N., Vengerov, Y. Y., and Pokrovskii, V. I. 2001. Outbreak of West Nile virus infection, Volgograd Region, Russia, 1999. Emerg Infect Dis 7:128–132

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Porter, M. B., Long, M. T., Getman, L. M., Giguere, S., MacKay, R. J., Lester, G. D., Alleman, A. R., Wamsley, H. L., Franklin, R. P., Jacks, S., Buergelt, C. D., and Detrisac, C. J. 2003. West Nile virus encephalomyelitis in horses: 46 cases (2001) . J Am Vet Med Assoc 222:1241–1247

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pupo, M., Guzman, M. G., Fernandez, R., Llop, A., Dickinson, F. O., Perez, D., Cruz, R., Gonzalez, T., Estevez, G., Gonzalez, H., Santos, P., Kouri, G., Andonova, M., Lindsay, R., Artsob, H., and Drebot, M. 2006. West Nile virus infection in humans and horses, Cuba. Emerg Infect Dis 12:1022–1024

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quirin, R., Salas, M., Zientara, S., Zeller, H., Labie, J., Murri, S., Lefrancois, T., Petitclerc, M., and Martinez, D. 2004. West Nile virus, Guadeloupe. Emerg Infect Dis 10:706–708

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ravindra, K. V., Freifeld, A. G., Kalil, A. C., Mercer, D. F., Grant, W. J., Botha, J. F., Wrenshall, L. E., and Stevens, R. B. 2004. West Nile virus-associated encephalitis in recipients of renal and pancreas transplants: Case series and literature review . Clin Infect Dis 38:1257–1260

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reddy, P., Davenport, R., Ratanatharathorn, V., Reynolds, C., Silver, S., Ayash, L., Ferrara, J. L., and Uberti, J. P. 2004. West Nile virus encephalitis causing fatal CNS toxicity after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 33:109–112

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Robertson, K. B., Barron, M. A., and Nieto, Y. 2004. West Nile virus infection in bone marrow transplant patients. Bone Marrow Transplant 34:823–824

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ruiz, M. O., Walker, E. D., Foster, E. S., Haramis, L. D., and Kitron, U. D. 2007. Association of West Nile virus illness and urban landscapes in Chicago and Detroit . Int J Health Geogr 6:10

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salazar, P., Traub-Dargatz, J. L., Morley, P. S., Wilmot, D. D., Steffen, D. J., Cunningham, W. E., and Salman, M. D. 2004. Outcome of equids with clinical signs of West Nile virus infection and factors associated with death. J Am Vet Med Assoc 225:267–274

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schellenberg, T. L., Anderson, M. E., Drebot, M. A., Vooght, M. T., Findlater, A. R., Curry, P. S., Campbell, C. A., and Osei, W. D. 2006. Seroprevalence of West Nile virus in Saskatchewan's Five Hills Health Region, 2003. Can J Public Health 97:369–373

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, J. R., and Elmansoury, H. K. 1963. Natural and experimental infection of Egyptian equines with West Nile virus. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 57:415–427

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schuffenecker, I., Peyrefitte, C. N., el Harrak, M., Murri, S., Leblond, A., and Zeller, H. G. 2005. West Nile virus in Morocco, 2003. Emerg Infect Dis 11:306–309

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sejvar, J. J., Haddad, M. B., Tierney, B. C., Campbell, G. L., Marfin, A. A., Van Gerpen, J. A., Fleischauer, A., Leis, A. A., Stokic, D. S., and Petersen, L. R. 2003. Neurologic manifestations and outcome of West Nile virus infection. J Am Med Assoc 290:511–515

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, R. D., Konoplev, S., DeCourten-Myers, G., and Brown, T. 2004. West Nile virus encephalitis with myositis and orchitis. Hum Pathol 35:254–258

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smithburn, K. C., Hughes, T. P., Burke, A. W., and Paul, J. H. 1940. A neurotropic virus isolated from the blood of a native of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 20:470–492

    Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, T. 2004. Flavivirus encephalitis. N Engl J Med 351:370–378

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Southam, C. M., and Moore, A. E. 1954. Induced virus infections in man by the Egypt isolates of West Nile virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 3:19–50

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stramer, S. L., Fang, C. T., Foster, G. A., Wagner, A. G., Brodsky, J. P., and Dodd, R. Y. 2005. West Nile virus among blood donors in the United States, 2003 and 2004 . N Engl J Med 353:451–459

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thakare, J. P., Rao, T. L., and Padbidri, V. S. 2002. Prevalence of West Nile virus infection in India. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 33:801–805

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Torno, M., Vollmer, M., and Beck, C. K. 2007. West Nile virus infection presenting as acute flaccid paralysis in an HIV-infected patient: A case report and review of the literature . Neurology 68:e5–e7

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Triki, H., Murri, S., Le Guenno, B., Bahri, O., Hili, K., Sidhom, M., and Dellagi, K. 2001. West Nile viral meningo-encephalitis in Tunisia. Med Trop (Mars) 61:487–490

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tsai, T. F., Popovici, F., Cernescu, C., Campbell, G. L., and Nedelcu, N. I. 1998. West Nile encephalitis epidemic in southeastern Romania. Lancet 352:767–771

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wadei, H., Alangaden, G. H., Sillix, D. H., El-Amm, J. M., Gruber, S. A., West, M. S., Granger, D. K., Garnick, J., Chandrasekar, P., Migdal, S. D., and Haririan, A. 2004. West Nile virus encephalitis: An emerging disease in renal transplant recipients . Clin Transplant 18:753–758

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, M. P., Levy, M., Thacker, H. L., Ash, M., Norman, S. K., Moore, G. E., and Webb, P. W. 2004 . Investigation of an outbreak of encephalomyelitis caused by West Nile virus in 136 horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 225:84–89

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weese, J. S., Baird, J. D., DeLay, J., Kenney, D. G., Staempfli, H. R., Viel, L., Parent, J., Smith-Maxie, L., and Poma, R. 2003. West Nile virus encephalomyelitis in horses in Ontario: 28 cases. Can Vet J 44:469–473

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weinberger, M., Pitlik, S. D., Gandacu, D., Lang, R., Nassar, F., Ben David, D., Rubinstein, E., Izthaki, A., Mishal, J., Kitzes, R., Siegman-Igra, Y., Giladi, M., Pick, N., Mendelson, E., Bin, H., and Shohat, T. 2001. West Nile fever outbreak, Israel, 2000: Epidemiologic aspects. Emerg Infect Dis 7:686–691

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, USA

    Lyle R. Petersen

Authors
  1. Lyle R. Petersen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Petersen, L.R. (2009). Global Epidemiology of West Nile Virus. In: West Nile Encephalitis Virus Infection. Emerging Infectious Diseases of the 21st Century. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79840-0_1

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation