Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Modeling the Urban Ecosystem: A Conceptual Framework

  • Chapter
Urban Ecology

Abstract

In this paper I build on current research in urban and ecological simulation modeling to develop a conceptual framework for modeling the urban ecosystem. Although important progress has been made in various areas of urban modeling, operational urban models are still primitive in terms of their ability to represent ecological processes. On the other hand, environmental models designed to assess the ecological impact of an urban region are limited in their ability to represent human systems. I present here a strategy to integrate these two lines of research into an urban ecological model (UEM). This model addresses the human dimension of the Puget Sound regional integrated simulation model (PRISM)—a multidisciplinary initiative at the University of Washington aimed at developing a dynamic and integrated understanding of the environmental and human systems in the Puget Sound. UEM simulates the environmental pressures associated with human activities under alternative demographic, economic, policy, and environmental scenarios. The specific objectives of UEM are to: quantify the major sources of human-induced environmental stresses (such as land-cover changes and nutrient discharges); determine the spatial and temporal variability of human stressors in relation to changes in the biophysical structure; relate the biophysical impacts of these stressors to the variability and spatial heterogeneity in land uses, human activities, and management practices; and predict the changes in stressors in relation to changes in human factors.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Alberti M, 1998, “Integrated assessment modeling: a systematic review of current approaches”, background paper for PRISM, SeaGrant Report, Department of Urban Design and Planning, University of Washington, Seattle, WA

    Google Scholar 

  • Alcamo J, Shaw R, Hordijk L (Eds), 1990 The RAINS Model of Acidification: Science and Strategies in Europe (Kluwer, Dordrecht)

    Google Scholar 

  • Alcamo J (Ed.), 1994 IMAGE 2.0: Integrated Modeling of Global Climate Change (Kluwer, Dordrecht)

    Google Scholar 

  • Alonso W, 1964 Location and Land Use (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA)

    Google Scholar 

  • Anas A, 1983, “Discrete choice theory, information theory and the multinomial logit and gravity models” Transportation Research B 17 13–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Anas A, 1995, “Capitalization of urban travel improvements into residential and commercial real estate: simulations with a unified model of housing, travel mode and shopping choices” Journal of Regional Science 35 323–351

    Google Scholar 

  • Anas A, Arnott R J, 1991, “Dynamic housing market equilibrium with taste heterogeneity, idiosyncratic perfect-foresight and stock conversions” Journal of Housing Economics 1 2–32

    Google Scholar 

  • Barra T de la, 1989 Integrated Land Use and Transport Modeling (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge)

    Google Scholar 

  • Batty M, Hutchinson B (Eds), 1983 Systems Analysis in Urban Policy-making and Planning (Plenum Press, New York)

    Google Scholar 

  • Batty M, Xie Y, 1994, “From cells to cities” Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 21 531–548

    Google Scholar 

  • Botkin D B, 1984 Forest Dynamics: An Ecological Model (Oxford University Press, New York)

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyce D E, 1986, “Integration of supply and demand models in transportation and location: problem formulation and research questions” Environment and Planning A 18 485–489

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyce D E, Southworth F, 1979, “Quasi-dynamic urban location models with endogenously determined travel costs’ Environment and Planning A 11 575–584

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyce D E, Lupa M R, Tatineni M, He Y, 1993, “Urban activity location and travel characteristics: exploratory scenario analyses”, SIG1 seminar paper on Environmental Challenges in Land Use Transport Coordination, Blackheath, Australia; copy available from Urban Transportation Center, University of Illinois at Chicago, IL

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyden S, Millar S, Newcombe K, O’Neill B, 1981 The Ecology of a City and Its People: The Case of Hong Kong (Australian National University Press, Canberra)

    Google Scholar 

  • Brail R K, 1990, “Integrating urban information systems and spatial models” Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 17 417–427

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown M D, 1997, “Understanding urban interactions: summary of a research workshop”, National Science Foundation, 4201 Wilson Boulevard, Arlington, VA 22230

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang J S, Middleton P B, Stockwell W R, Walcek C J, Pleim J E, Landsford H H, Madronich S, Binkowski F S, Seaman N L, Stauffer D R, 1990, “The regional acid deposition model and engineering model”, NAPAP SOS/T report 4, in National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program: State of Science and Technology, Volume 1 National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program, 722 Jackson Place NW, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark W C, 1986, “Sustainable development of the biosphere: themes for a research program”, in Sustainable Development of the Biosphere Eds W C Clark, R E Munn (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge) pp 5–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Clarke K C, Gaydos L, Hoppen S, 1997, “A self-modifying cellular automaton model of historical urbanization in the San Francisco Bay area” Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 24 247–262

    Google Scholar 

  • Costanza R, Wainger L, Bockstael N, 1995, “Integrated ecological economic systems modeling: theoretical issues and practical applications”, in Integrating Economics and Ecological Indicators Eds J W Milon, J F Shogren (Praeger, Westport, CT) pp 45–66

    Google Scholar 

  • Couclelis H, 1985, “Cellular worlds: a framework for modelling micro – macro dynamics” Environment and Planning A 17 585–596

    Google Scholar 

  • Douglas I, 1983 The Urban Environment (Edward Arnold, Baltimore, MD)

    Google Scholar 

  • Dowlatabadi H, 1995, “Integrated assessment models of climate change: an incomplete overview” Energy Policy 23 289–296

    Google Scholar 

  • Dowlatabadi H, Ball M, 1994, “An overview of the integrated climate assessment model version 2.0”, paper presented at the Western Economic Association Conference, Vancouver; copy available from the author

    Google Scholar 

  • Duvigneaud P (Ed.), 1974 Études Écologiques de l’Écosystéme Urbain Bruxellois Mémoires de la Société Royale de Botanique de la Belgique, Brusselse Stw 38, 1860 Meise, Belgium

    Google Scholar 

  • Echenique M H A, Flowerdew D J, Hunt J D, Mayo T R, Skidmore I J, Simmonds D C, 1990, “The MEPLAN models of Bilbao, Leeds and Dortmund” Transportation Reviews 10 309–322

    Google Scholar 

  • Esser G, 1991, “Osnabrück biosphere model: structure, construction, results”, in Modern Ecology: Basic and Applied Aspects Eds G Esser, D Overdieck (Elsevier, Amsterdam) pp 679–709

    Google Scholar 

  • Esser G, Hoffstadt J, Mack F, Wittenberg U, 1994 High Resolution Biosphere Model, Documentation, Model Version 3.00.00 information paper 2:68 S, Institut für Pflanzenökologie, Justus-Liebig-Universität, Giessen, Germany

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitz H C, DeBellevue E B, Costanza R, Boumann R, Maxwell T, Wainger L, 1999, “Development of a general ecosystem model for a range of scales and ecosystems” Ecological Modeling 88 263–295

    Google Scholar 

  • Forrester J W, 1969 Urban Dynamics (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA)

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris B, 1996, “Land use models in transportation planning: a review of past developments and current test practice”, in Enhancement of DVRPC’s Travel Simulation Models Task 12 Eds K Oryani, B Harris, Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission, Philadelphia, PA 19106-2515, Appendix B

    Google Scholar 

  • Herbert J D, Stevens B H, 1960, “A model for the distribution of residential activity in urban areas” Journal of Regional Science 2 21–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Holling C S, 1978 Adaptive Environmental Assessment and Management (John Wiley, Chichester, Sussex)

    Google Scholar 

  • Holling C S, 1986, “Resilience of ecosystems: local surprise and global change”, in Sustainable Development of the Biosphere Eds W C Clark, R E Munn (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge) pp 292–317

    Google Scholar 

  • Holling C S, 1995, “What barriers? What bridges”, in Barriers and Bridges to the Renewal of Ecosystems and Institutions Eds L H Gunderson, C S Holling, S S Light (Columbia University Press, New York) pp 3–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Jørgensen S E, Halling-Sorensen B, Nielsen S N (Eds), 1995 Handbook of Environmental and Ecological Modeling (Lewis, Chelsea, MI)

    Google Scholar 

  • Kain J F, Apgar Jr W C, 1985 Housing and Neighborhood Dynamics: A Simulation Study (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA)

    Google Scholar 

  • Kates R W, Turner II B L, Clark W C, 1990, “The great transformation”, in The Earth as Transformed by Human Action Eds B L Turner II, W C Clark, R W Kates, J F Richards, J T Mathews, W B Meyer (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge) pp 1–17

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim T J, 1989 Integrated Urban System Modeling: Theory and Practice (Martinus Nijhoff, Norwell, MD)

    Google Scholar 

  • Landis J D, 1992, “BASS II: a new generation of metropolitan simulation models”, Institute of Urban and Regional Development, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA

    Google Scholar 

  • Landis J D, 1995, “Imagining land use futures: applying the California urban futures model” Journal of the American Planning Association 61 438–457

    Google Scholar 

  • Landis J D, Zhang M, 1998a, “The second generation of the California urban futures model. Part 1: Model logic and theory” Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 25 657–666

    Google Scholar 

  • Landis J D, Zhang M, 1998b, “The second generation of the California urban futures model. Part 2: Specification and calibration results of the land-use change model” Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 25 795–824

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee D B, 1973, “Requiem for large scale models” Journal of the American Institute of Planners 39 163–178

    Google Scholar 

  • Leontief W, 1967 Input – Output Economics (Oxford University Press, New York)

    Google Scholar 

  • Lonergan S, Prudham S, 1994, “Modeling global change in an integrated framework: a view from the social sciences”, in Changes in Land Use and Land Cover: A Global Perspective Eds W B Meyer, B L Turner II (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge) pp 411–435

    Google Scholar 

  • Lowry I S, 1964 A Model of Metropolis publication RM-4035-RC, The Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, CA

    Google Scholar 

  • Lynch K, 1981 Good City Form (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA)

    Google Scholar 

  • McDonnel M J, Pickett S T A, 1990, “Ecosystem structure and function along urban – rural gradients: an unexploited opportunity for ecology” Ecology 71 1231–1237

    Google Scholar 

  • McFadden D, 1973, “Conditional logit analysis of qualitative choice behavior”, in Frontiers in Econometrics Ed. P Zarembka (Academic Press, New York) pp 105–142

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackett R L, 1985, “Integrated land use – transport models” Transportation Reviews 5 325–343

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackett R L, 1990, “MASTER model (micro-analytical simulation of transport, employment and residence)”, report SR-237, Transport Research Laboratory, Crowthorne, Berks RG11 6AU

    Google Scholar 

  • Mäler K-G, Green I-M, Folke C, 1994, “Multiple use of resources: a household production function approach to valuing natural capital”, in Investing in Natural Capital Eds A M Jansson, M Hammer, C Folke, R Costanza Investing in Natural Capital (Island Press, Washington, DC) pp 233–249

    Google Scholar 

  • Maxwell T, Costanza R, 1995, “Distributed modular spatial ecosystem modeling” International Journal of Computer Simulation 5(3) special issue

    Google Scholar 

  • Meadows D H, Meadows D L, Randers J, Beherens W W III, 1972 The Limits of Growth (Universe Books, New York)

    Google Scholar 

  • Melillo J M, 1994, “Modeling land – atmosphere interactions: a short review”, in Changes in Land Use and Land Cover: A Global Perspective Eds W B Meyer, B L Turner II (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge) pp 387–409

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer W B, Turner II B L (Eds), 1994 Changes in Land Use and Land Cover: A Global Perspective (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge)

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan M G, Dowlatabadi H, 1996, “Learning from integrated assessment of climate change” Climatic Change 34 337–368

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris R E, Meyers T C, 1990 User’s Guide for the Urban Airshed Model, Volume 1: User’s Manual for UAM (CB-IV) EPA-450/4-90–007A, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711

    Google Scholar 

  • Novak J H, Dennis R L, Byun D W, Plaim J E, Galluppi K J, Coats C J, Chall S, 1995 EPA Third-Generation Air Quality Modeling System Volume 1: Concept EPA600/R95/082, Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711

    Google Scholar 

  • Odum E P, 1963 Ecology (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York)

    Google Scholar 

  • Odum E P, 1997 Ecology: A Bridge between Science and Society (Sinauer, Sunderland, MA)

    Google Scholar 

  • Odum H T, 1983 Systems Ecology: An Introduction (John Wiley, New York)

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Neill R, DeAngelis D L, Wide J B, Allen T H F, 1986 A Hierarchical Concept of Ecosystems (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ)

    Google Scholar 

  • Openshaw S, 1995, “Human systems modelling as a new grand challenge area in science: what has happened to the science in the social science?” Environment and Planning A 27 159–164

    Google Scholar 

  • Ostrom E, 1991 Governing the Commons (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge)

    Google Scholar 

  • Owens S E, 1986 Energy, Planning and Urban Form (Pion, London)

    Google Scholar 

  • Parson E A, Fisher-Vanden K, 1995, “Searching for integrated assessment: a preliminary investigation of methods and projects in the integrated assessment of global climatic change”, CIESEN – HARVARD Commission on Global Environmental Change Information Policy; copy available from the Consortium for International Earth Science Information Network, Columbia University, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Parton W J, 1996, “The CENTURY model”, in Evaluation of Soil Organic Matter Models using Existing Long-term Datasets Eds D S Powlson, P Smith, J U Smith (Springer, Berlin) pp 283–293

    Google Scholar 

  • Parton W J, Schimel D S, Cole C V, Ojima D S, 1987, “Analysis of factors controlling soil organic matter levels in Great Plains Grasslands” Soil Science Society of America Journal 51 1173–1179

    Google Scholar 

  • Pickett S T A, Burke I C, Dale V H, Gosz J R, Lee R G, Pacala S W, Shachak M, 1994, “Integrated models of forested regions”, in Integrated Regional Models Eds P M Grogffman, G E Likens (Chapman and Hall, New York)

    Google Scholar 

  • Pickett S T A, Burke I C, Dalton S E, Foresman T W, Grove J M, Rowntree R, 1997, “A conceptual framework for the study of human ecosystems in urban areas” Urban Ecosystems 1 185–199

    Google Scholar 

  • Prastacos P, 1986, “An integrated land-use –transportation model for the San Francisco Region: 1. Design and mathematical structure” Environment and Planning A 18 307–322

    Google Scholar 

  • Putman S H, 1979 Urban Residential Location Models (Martius Nijhoff, Dordrecht)

    Google Scholar 

  • Putman S H, 1983 Integrated Urban Models (Pion, London)

    Google Scholar 

  • Putman S H, 1991 Integrated Urban Models 2 (Pion, London)

    Google Scholar 

  • Putman S H, 1995, “EMPAL and DRAM location and land use models: an overview”, in Land Use Modeling Conference Proceedings Ed. G A Shunk, report DOT-T-96-09 (US Department of Transportation, Washington, DC)

    Google Scholar 

  • Putman S H, 1996, “Extending DRAM model: theory –practice nexus”’ Transportation Research Record number 1552, pp 112–119

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers P, 1994, “Hydrology and water quality”, in Changes in Land Use and Land Cover: A Global Perspective Eds W B Meyer, B L Turner II (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge) pp 231–257

    Google Scholar 

  • Rotmans J, Dowlatabadi H, Filar J A, Parson E A, 1995, “Integrated assessment of climate change: evaluation of methods and strategies”, in Human Choices and Climate Change: A State of the Art Report Battelle Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, PO Box 999, Richland, Washington, DC 99352

    Google Scholar 

  • Rotmans J, van Asselt M B A, de Bruin A J, den Elzen M G J, de Greef J, Hilderink H, Hoekstra A Y, Janssen M A, Koster H W, Martens W J M, Niessen L W, de Vries H J M, 1994, “Global change and sustainable development: a modeling perspective for the next decade”, RIVM report, number 461502 000, National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider E D, Kay J J, 1994, “Life as a manifestation of the second law of thermodynamics” Mathematical and Computer Modelling 19(6–8) 25–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith M, 1998, “Painting by numbers—mathematical models of urban systems” Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 25 483–493

    Google Scholar 

  • Stearns F, Montag T (Eds), 1974 The Urban Ecosystem: A Holistic Approach (Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, PA)

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner M, 1989, “Landscape ecology: the effect of pattern on process” Annual Review of Ecological Systems 20 171–197

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner II B, Skole D, Sanderson S, Fischer G, Fresco L, Leemans R, 1995, “Land-use and land-cover change science research plan”, IGBP report number 35 and HDP report number 7, The International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme: A Study of Global Change (IGBP), Stockholm, and The Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme (HDP), Geneva; http://www.icc.es/lucc/

    Google Scholar 

  • US Global Change Research Program Act, 1990, Public Law 101–606 (11/16/90) 104 Stat. 3096–3104, approved by the Senate and House of Representatives, 16 November

    Google Scholar 

  • Vörösmarty C J, Moore III B, 1991, “Modeling basin-scale hydrology in support of physical climate and global biogeochemical studies: an example using the Zambezi River” Studies in Geophysics 12 271–311

    Google Scholar 

  • Waddell P A, 1998, “UrbanSim: The Oregon prototype metropolitan land use model”, in Proceedings of the 1988 ASCE Conference on Land Use, Transportation and Air Quality: Making the Connection; copy available from the author

    Google Scholar 

  • Waddell PA, Alberti M, 1998, “Integration of an urban simulation model and an urban ecosystems model”, in Proceedings of the International Conference on Modeling Geographical and Environmental Systems with Geographical Information Systems copy available from the author

    Google Scholar 

  • Washington W M, Meehl G A, 1996, “High-latitude climate change in a global coupled ocean – atmosphere – sea ice model with increased atmospheric CO2” Journal of Geophysical Resources 101 (D8) 12795–12801

    Google Scholar 

  • Wegener M, 1982, “Modeling urban decline: a multilevel economic-demographic model of the Dortmund region” International Regional Science Review 7 21–41

    Google Scholar 

  • Wegener M, 1983, “Description of the Dortmund region model”, WP-8, Institute für Raumplanung, University of Dortmund, D-44221 Dortmund, Germany

    Google Scholar 

  • Wegener M, 1994, “Operational urban models: state of the art” Journal of the American Planning Association 60(1) 17–30

    Google Scholar 

  • Wegener M, 1995, “Current and future land use models”, in Land Use Modeling Conference Proceedings Ed. G A Shunk, report DOT-T-96-09 (US Department of Transportation, Washington, DC) pp 13–40

    Google Scholar 

  • Wegener M, Spiekermann K, 1996, “The potential of microsimulation for urban models”, in London Papers in Regional Science 6. Microsimulation for Urban and Regional Policy Analysis Ed. G P Clarke (Pion, London) pp 149–163

    Google Scholar 

  • Weyant J P, Davidson O, Dowlatabadi H, Edmonds J, Grubb M, Richels R, Rotmans J, Shukla P, Tol R, Cline W, Fankhauser S, 1996, “Integrated assessment of climate change: an overview and comparison of modeling approaches and results”, in Climate Change 1995: Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change Eds J P Bruce, H Lee, E F Haites (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge) pp 367–396

    Google Scholar 

  • Wheaton W C, 1974, “Linear programming and locational equilibrium: the Herbert – Stevens model revisited” Journal of Urban Economics 1 278–287

    Google Scholar 

  • White R, Engelen G, 1997, “Cellular automata as the basis of integrated dynamic modeling” Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 24 235–246

    Google Scholar 

  • White R, Engelen G, Uljee I, 1997, “The use of constrained cellular automata for high-resolution modeling of urban land-use dynamics” Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 24 323–343

    Google Scholar 

  • Wigmosta M S, Lettenmaier D P, Vail L W, 1994, “A distributed hydrology – vegetation model for complex terrain” Water Resources Research 30 1665–1679

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson A G, 1967, “A statistical theory of spatial trip-distribution models” Transportation Research 1 253–269

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson A G, 1974 Urban and Regional Models in Geography and Planning (John Wiley, Chichester, Sussex)

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson A G, Coelho J D, Macgill S M, Williams H C W L, 1981 Optimization in Locational and Transport Analysis (John Wiley, Chichester, Sussex)

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson A G, Rees P H, Leigh C M, 1977 Models of Cities and Regions: Theoretical and Empirical Developments (John Wiley, Chichester, Sussex)

    Google Scholar 

  • Wingo L, 1961 Transportation and Urban Land (Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD)

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolman A, 1965, “The metabolism of cities” Scientific American 213(3) 179–188

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu F, 1998, “An experiment on the generic polycentricity of urban growth in a cellular automata city” Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 25 731–752

    Google Scholar 

  • Young J, Aissa M, Boehm T, Coats C, Eichinger J, Grimes D, Hallyburton S, Heilman W, Olerud D, Roselle S, Van Meter A, Wayland R, Pierce T, 1989 Development of the Regional Oxidant Model Version 2.1 EPA-600/3-89-044, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Urban Design and Planning, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-5740, USA

    M. Alberti

Authors
  1. M. Alberti
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of Washington, Box 352100, Seattle, WA 98195

    John M. Marzluff , Gordon Bradley  & Clare Ryan ,  & 

  2. University of Washington, 3912 NE 127th Street, Seattle, WA 98125

    Eric Shulenberger

  3. Geographisches Institute, Humboldt University Unter den Linden, 10099 Berlin, Germany

    Wilfried Endlicher

  4. University of Washington, Box 355740, Seattle, WA 98195

    Marina Alberti

  5. Humboldt University Miningstrasse 46, 12359 Berlin, Germany

    Ute Simon

  6. University of Washington, Box 355740, Seattle, WA 98195

    Craig ZumBrunnen

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2008 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Alberti, M. (2008). Modeling the Urban Ecosystem: A Conceptual Framework. In: Marzluff, J.M., et al. Urban Ecology. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-73412-5_41

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation