Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Leptospirosis

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Bacterial Infections of Humans

Leptospirosis in humans occurs globally(141) as an acute infection ranging in severity from unnoticed and subclinical to fatal. It is a zoonosis (strictly, an anthropozoonosis) acquired by humans from an animal source. The causal bacterium is a pathogenic spirochete of the genus Leptospira, of which there are several species and more than 250 serological varieties (serovars), each of which has some diagnostic, prognostic, or epidemiological significance.(50,70)

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 259.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Adler, B., Murphy, A. M., Locarnini, S. A., & Faine, S. (1980). Detection of specific anti-leptospiral immunoglobulins M and G in human serum by solid-phase enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 11, 452–457.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Ahmed, N., Devi, S. M., Valverde Mde, L., Vijayachari, P., Machang’u, R. S., Ellis, W. A., et al. (2006). Multilocus sequence typing method for identification and genotypic classification of pathogenic Leptospira species. Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials, 5, 28.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Aker, N., James, E. B., Johnston, A. M., & Pasvol, G. (1996). Leptospirosis in pregnancy: an unusual and relatively unrecognised cause of intrauterine death. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 16, 163–165.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Alexander, A., Baer, A., Fair, J. R., Gochenour, W. S., King, J. H., & Yager, R. N. (1952). Leptospiral uveitis. Report of a bacteriologically confirmed case. Archives of Ophthalmology, 48, 292–297.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Alexander, A. D., Evans, L. B., Baker, M. F., Baker, H. J., Ellison, D., & Marriapan, M. (1975). Pathogenic leptospiras isolated from Malaysian surface waters. Applied Microbiology, 29, 33–33.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Areán, V. M. (1962). The pathologic anatomy and pathogenesis of fatal human leptospirosis (Weil’s disease). American Journal of Pathology, 40, 393–423.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Artiushin, S., Timoney, J. F., Nally, J., & Verma, A. (2004). Host-inducible immunogenic sphingomyelinase-like protein, Lk73.5, of Leptospira interrogans. Infection and Immunity, 72, 742–749.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Ballard, S. A., Williamson, M., Adler, B., Vinh, T., & Faine, S. (1986). Interactions of virulent and avirulent leptospires with primary cultures of renal epithelial cells. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 21, 59–67.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Barbosa, A. S., Abreu, P. A., Neves, F. O., Atzingen, M. V., Watanabe, M. M., Vieira, M. L., et al. (2006). A newly identified leptospiral adhesin mediates attachment to laminin. Infection and Immunity, 74, 6356–6364.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Berman, S. J., Tsai, C. C., Holmes, K. K., Fresh, J. W., & Watten, R. H. (1973). Sporadic anicteric leptospirosis in South Vietnam. Annals of Internal Medicine, 79, 167–173.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Blackmore, D. K., Schollum, L. M., & Moriarty, K. M. (1984). The magnitude and duration of titres of leptospiral agglutinins in human sera. New Zealand Medical Journal, 97, 83–86.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Boland, M., Sayers, G., Coleman, T., Bergin, C., Sheehan, N., Creamer, E., et al. (2004). A cluster of leptospirosis cases in canoeists following a competition on the River Liffey. Epidemiology and Infection, 132, 195–200.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Bolin, C. A., & Alt, D. P. (2001). Use of a monovalent leptospiral vaccine to prevent renal colonization and urinary shedding in cattle exposed to Leptospira borgpetersenii serovar hardjo. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 62, 995–1000.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Boursaux-Eude, C., Saint Girons, I., & Zuerner, R. L. (1998). Leptospira genomics. Electrophoresis, 19, 589–592.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Branger, C., Sonrier, C., Chatrenet, B., Klonjkowski, B., Ruvoen-Clouet, N., Aubert, A., et al. (2001). Identification of the hemolysis-associated protein 1 as a cross-protective immunogen of Leptospira interrogans by adenovirus-mediated vaccination. Infection and Immunity, 69, 6831–6838.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Brenner, D. J., Kaufmann, A. F., Sulzer, K. R., Steigerwalt, A. G., Rogers, F. C., & Weyant, R. S. (1999). Further determination of DNA relatedness between serogroups and serovars in the family Leptospiraceae with a proposal for Leptospira alexanderi sp. nov. and four new Leptospira genomospecies. International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology, 49, 839–858.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Brown, P. D., Carrington, D. G., Gravekamp, C., van de Kemp, H., Edwards, C. N., Jones, S. R., et al. (2003). Direct detection of leptospiral material in human postmortem samples. Research in Microbiology, 154, 581–586.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Brown, P. D., Gravekamp, C., Carrington, D. G., Van de Kemp, H., Hartskeerl, R. A., Edwards, C. N., et al. (1995). Evaluation of the polymerase chain reaction for early diagnosis of leptospirosis. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 43, 110–114.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Brown, R. A., Blumerman, S., Gay, C., Bolin, C., Duby, R., & Baldwin, C. L. (2003). Comparison of three different leptospiral vaccines for induction of a type 1 immune response to Leptospira borgpetersenii serovar Hardjo. Vaccine, 21, 4448–4458.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Bulach, D. M., Kalambaheti, T., de La Peña-Moctezuma, A., & Adler, B. (2000). Lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis in Leptospira. Journal of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology, 2, 375–380.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Bulach, D. M., Zuerner, R. L., Wilson, P., Seemann, T., McGrath, A., Cullen, P. A., et al. (2006). Genome reduction in Leptospira borgpetersenii reflects limited transmission potential. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 103, 14560–14565.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Cacciapuoti, B., Ciceroni, L., Maffei, C., Di Stanislao, F., Strusi, P., Calegari, L., et al. (1987). A waterborne outbreak of leptospirosis. American Journal of Epidemiology, 126, 535–545.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Cargill, C. F., & Davos, D. E. (1981). Renal leptospirosis in vaccinated pigs. Australian Veterinary Journal, 57, 236–238.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1997a). Case definitions for infectious conditions under public health surveillance. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Reports, 46 (No. RR-10), 49.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1997b). Outbreak of leptospirosis among white-water rafters – Costa Rica, 1996. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Reports, 46, 577–579.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Chappel, R. J., Goris, M. G., Palmer, M. F., & Hartskeerl, R. A. (2004). Impact of proficiency testing on results of the microscopic agglutination test for diagnosis of leptospirosis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 42, 5484–5488.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Choy, H. A., Kelley, M. M., Chen, T. L., Moller, A. K., Matsunaga, J., & Haake, D. A. (2007). Physiological osmotic induction of Leptospira interrogans adhesion: LigA and LigB bind extracellular matrix proteins and fibrinogen. Infection and Immunity, 75, 2441–2450.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Chung, H.-L., Ts’ao, W.-C., Mo, P.-S., & Yen, C. (1963). Transplacental or congenital infection of leptospirosis. Chinese Medical Journal, 82, 777–782.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Coghlan, J. D., & Bain, A. D. (1969). Leptospirosis in human pregnancy followed by death of the foetus. British Medical Journal, 1, 228–230.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Costa, E., Lopes, A. A., Sacramento, E., Costa, Y. A., Matos, E. D., Lopes, M. B., et al. (2003). Penicillin at the late stage of leptospirosis: a randomized controlled trial. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, 45, 141–145.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Cullen, P. A., Haake, D. A., & Adler, B. (2004). Outer membrane proteins of pathogenic spirochetes. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 28, 291–318.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Cumberland, P. C., Everard, C. O. R., & Levett, P. N. (1999). Assessment of the efficacy of the IgM enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and microscopic agglutination test (MAT) in the diagnosis of acute leptospirosis. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 61, 731–734.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Cumberland, P. C., Everard, C. O. R., Wheeler, J. G., & Levett, P. N. (2001). Persistence of anti-leptospiral IgM, IgG and agglutinating antibodies in patients presenting with acute febrile illness in Barbados 1979–1989. European Journal of Epidemiology, 17, 601–608.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. de Brito, T., Machado, M. M., Montans, S. D., Hosino, S., & Freymüller, E. (1967). Liver biopsy in human leptospirosis: a light and electron microscopy study. Virchows Archiv A, Pathological Anatomy and Histopathology, 342, 61–69.

    Google Scholar 

  35. de Brito, T., Morais, C. F., Yasuda, P. H., Lancellotti, C. P., Hoshino-Shimizu, S., Yamashiro, E., et al. (1987). Cardiovascular involvement in human and experimental leptospirosis: pathologic findings and immunohistochemical detection of leptospiral antigen. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 81, 207–214.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Diesch, S. L., & McCulloch, W. F. (1966). Isolation of pathogenic leptospires from waters used for recreation. Public Health Reports, 81, 299–304.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Dikken, H., & Kmety, E. (1978). Serological typing methods of leptospires. In T. Bergan & J. R. Norris (Eds.), Methods in microbiology (Vol. 11, pp. 259–307). London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Edwards, C. N., & Levett, P. N. (2004). Prevention and treatment of leptospirosis. Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy, 2, 293–298.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Edwards, C. N., Nicholson, G. D., Hassell, T. A., Everard, C. O. R., & Callender, J. (1986). Thrombocytopenia in leptospirosis: the absence of evidence for disseminated intravascular coagulation. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 35, 352–354.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Edwards, C. N., Nicholson, G. D., Hassell, T. A., Everard, C. O. R., & Callender, J. (1988). Penicillin therapy in icteric leptospirosis. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 39, 388–390.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Edwards, C. N., Nicholson, G. D., Hassell, T. A., Everard, C. O. R., & Callender, J. (1990). Leptospirosis in Barbados: a clinical study. West Indian Medical Journal, 39, 27–34.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Ellis, W. A., McParland, P. J., Bryson, D. G., Thiermann, A. B., & Montgomery, J. (1986). Isolation of leptospires from the genital tract and kidneys of aborted sows. Veterinary Record, 118, 294–295.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Ellis, W. A., Montgomery, J., & Cassells, J. A. (1985). Dihydrostreptomycin treatment of bovine carriers of Leptospira interrogans serovar hardjo. Research in Veterinary Science, 39, 292–295.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Everard, C. O. R., & Bennett, S. (1990). Persistence of leptospiral agglutinins in Trinidadian survey subjects. European Journal of Epidemiology, 6, 40–44.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Everard, C. O. R., Edwards, C. N., Everard, J. D., & Carrington, D. G. (1995). A twelve year study of leptospirosis on Barbados. European Journal of Epidemiology, 11, 311–320.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Everard, C. O. R., Fraser-Chanpong, G. M., Hayes, R., Bhagwandin, L. J., & Butcher, L. V. (1982). A survey of leptospirosis in febrile patients mainly from hospitals and clinics in Trinidad. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 76, 487–492.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Everard, C. O. R., Jones, C. J., Inniss, V. A., Carrington, D. G., & Vaughan, A. W. (1987). Leptospirosis in dogs on Barbados. Israel Journal of Veterinary Medicine, 43, 288–295.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Everard, J. D. (1996). Leptospirosis. In F. E. G. Cox (Ed.), The Wellcome Trust Illustrated History of Tropical Diseases (pp. 111–119, 416–418). London: The Wellcome Trust.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Everard, J. D., & Everard, C. O. R. (1993). Leptospirosis in the Caribbean. Reviews in Medical Microbiology, 4, 114–122.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Faine, S., Adler, B., Bolin, C., & Perolat, P. (1999). Leptospira and leptospirosis (2 ed.). Melbourne: MedSci.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Faine, S., & Stallman, N. D. (1982). Amended descriptions of the genus Leptospira Noguchi 1917 and the species L. interrogans (Stimson 1907) Wenyon 1926 and L. biflexa (Wolbach and Binger 1914) Noguchi 1918. International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology, 32, 461–463.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Faine, S., & Valentine, R. (1984). Leptospirosis hardjo in pregnancy. Medical Journal of Australia, 311–312.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Feigin, R. D., Lobes, L. A., Anderson, D., & Pickering, L. (1973). Human leptospirosis from immunized dogs. Annals of Internal Medicine, 79, 777–785.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Friedland, J. S., & Warrell, D. A. (1991). The Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction in leptospirosis: possible pathogenesis and review. Reviews of Infectious Diseases, 13, 207–210.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Galloway R., & Levett, P. N. (2008). Evaluation of a modified pulsed-field gel electrophoresis approach for the identification of Leptospira serovars. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 78, 628–632.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Gerritsen, M. J., Koopmans, M. J., & Olyhoek, T. (1993). Effect of streptomycin treatment on the shedding of and the serologic responses to Leptospira interrogans serovar hardjo subtype hardjobovis in experimentally infected cows. Veterinary Microbiology, 38, 129–138.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Gonsalez, C. R., Casseb, J., Monteiro, F. G., Paula-Neto, J. B., Fernandez, R. B., Silva, M. B., et al. (1998). Use of doxycycline for leptospirosis after high-risk exposure in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, 41, 59–61.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Gordon Smith, C. E., & Turner, L. H. (1961). The effect of pH on the survival of leptospires in water. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 24, 35–43.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Gravekamp, C., van de Kemp, H., Franzen, M., Carrington, D., Schoone, G. J., van Eys, G. J. J. M., et al. (1993). Detection of seven species of pathogenic leptospires by PCR using two sets of primers. Journal of General Microbiology, 139, 1691–1700.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Haake, D. A., Suchard, M. A., Kelley, M. M., Dundoo, M., Alt, D. P., & Zuerner, R. L. (2004). Molecular evolution and mosaicism of leptospiral outer membrane proteins involves horizontal DNA transfer. Journal of Bacteriology, 186, 2818–2828.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Harkin, K. R., Roshto, Y. M., Sullivan, J. T., Purvis, T. J., & Chengappa, M. M. (2003). Comparison of polymerase chain reaction assay, bacteriologic culture, and serologic testing in assessment of prevalence of urinary shedding of leptospires in dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 222, 1230–1233.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Herrmann, J. L. (1993). Genomic techniques for identification of Leptospira strains. Pathologie Biologie, 41, 943–950.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Herrmann, J. L., Bellenger, E., Perolat, P., Baranton, G., & Saint Girons, I. (1992). Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis of NotI digests of leptospiral DNA: a new rapid method of serovar identification. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 30, 1696–1702.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Johnson, R. C., & Faine, S. (1984). Leptospira. In N. R. Krieg & J. G. (Eds.), Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology (Vol. 1, pp. 62–67). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Kingscote, B. F. (1970). Correlation of bedrock type with the geography of leptospirosis. Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine, 34, 31–37.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Klimpel, G. R., Matthias, M. A., & Vinetz, J. M. (2003). Leptospira interrogans activation of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells: preferential expansion of TCR γδ+ T cells vs TCR αβ+ T cells. Journal of Immunology, 171, 1447–1455.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Kmety, E., & Dikken, H. (1993). Classification of the species Leptospira interrogans and history of its serovars. Groningen: University Press Groningen.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Ko, A. I., Galvao Reis, M., Ribeiro Dourado, C. M., Johnson, W. D., Riley, L. W., & Salvador Leptospirosis Study Group. (1999). Urban epidemic of severe leptospirosis in Brazil. Lancet, 354, 820–825.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. La Scola, B., Bui, L. T. M., Baranton, G., Khamis, A., & Raoult, D. (2006). Partial rpoB gene sequencing for identification of Leptospira species. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 263, 142–147.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Levett, P. N. (2001). Leptospirosis. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 14, 296–326.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Levett, P. N. (2003). Usefulness of serologic analysis as a predictor of the infecting serovar in patients with severe leptospirosis. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 36, 447–452.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Levett, P. N. (2004). Leptospirosis. In G. L. Mandell, J. E. Bennett & R. Dolin (Eds.), Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases (6th edn., pp. 2789–2795.). Philadelphia: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Levett, P. N., Branch, S. L., & Edwards, C. N. (2000). Detection of dengue infection in patients investigated for leptospirosis in Barbados. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 62, 112–114.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Levett, P. N., Branch, S. L., Whittington, C. U., Edwards, C. N., & Paxton, H. (2001). Two methods for rapid serological diagnosis of acute leptospirosis. Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology, 8, 349–351.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Levett, P. N., Morey, R. E., Galloway, R. L., Turner, D. E., Steigerwalt, A. G., & Mayer, L. W. (2005). Detection of pathogenic leptospires by real-time quantitative PCR. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 54, 45–49.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Lingappa, J., Kuffner, T., Tappero, J., Whitworth, W., Mize, A., Kaiser, R., et al. (2004). HLA-DQ6 and ingestion of contaminated water: possible gene-environment interaction in an outbreak of leptospirosis. Genes and Immunity, 5, 197–202.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Lucchesi, P. M., Parma, A. E., & Arroyo, G. H. (2002). Serovar distribution of a DNA sequence involved in the antigenic relationship between Leptospira and equine cornea. BMC Microbiology, 2, 3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Lupidi, R., Cinco, M., Balanzin, D., Delprete, E., & Varaldo, P. E. (1991). Serological follow-up of patients in a localized outbreak of leptospirosis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 29, 805–809.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Majed, Z., Bellenger, E., Postic, D., Pourcel, C., Baranton, G., & Picardeau, M. (2005). Identification of variable-number tandem-repeat loci in Leptospira interrogans sensu stricto. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 43, 539–545.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Mancel, E., Merien, F., Pesenti, L., Salino, D., Angibaud, G., & Perolat, P. (1999). Clinical aspects of ocular leptospirosis in New Caledonia (South Pacific). Australian and New Zealand Journal of Ophthalmology, 27, 380–386.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Matsunaga, J., Sanchez, Y., Xu, X., & Haake, D. A. (2005). Osmolarity, a key environmental signal controlling expression of leptospiral proteins LigA and LigB and the extracellular release of LigA. Infection and Immunity, 73, 70–78.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Matsunaga, J., Werneid, K., Zuerner, R. L., Frank, A., & Haake, D. A. (2006). LipL46 is a novel surface-exposed lipoprotein expressed during leptospiral dissemination in the mammalian host. Microbiology, 152, 3777–3786.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. McClain, J. B. L., Ballou, W. R., Harrison, S. M., & Steinweg, D. L. (1984). Doxycycline therapy for leptospirosis. Annals of Internal Medicine, 100, 696–698.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Meites, E., Jay, M. T., Deresinski, S., Shieh, W. J., Zaki, S. R., Tompkins, L., et al. (2004). Reemerging leptospirosis, California. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 10, 406–412.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Meri, T., Murgia, R., Stefanel, P., Meri, S., & Cinco, M. (2005). Regulation of complement activation at the C3-level by serum resistant leptospires. Microbial Pathogenesis, 39, 139–147.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Merien, F., Amouriauz, P., Pérolat, P., Baranton, G., & Saint Girons, I. (1992). Polymerase chain reaction for detection of Leptospira spp. in clinical samples. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 30, 2219–2224.

    Google Scholar 

  87. Merien, F., Baranton, G., & Pérolat, P. (1995). Comparison of polymerase chain reaction with microagglutination test and culture for diagnosis of leptospirosis. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 172, 281–285.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Merien, F., & Pérolat, P. (1996). Public health importance of human leptospirosis in the South Pacific: a five-year study in New Caledonia. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 55, 174–178.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Merien, F., Portnoi, D., Bourhy, P., Charavay, F., Berlioz-Arthaud, A., & Baranton, G. (2005). A rapid and quantitative method for the detection of Leptospira species in human leptospirosis. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 249, 139–147.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Morey, R. E., Galloway, R. L., Bragg, S. L., Steigerwalt, A. G., Mayer, L. W., & Levett, P. N. (2006). Species-specific identification of Leptospiraceae by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 44, 3510–3516.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Morgan, J., Bornstein, S. L., Karpati, A. M., Bruce, M., Bolin, C. A., Austin, C. C., et al. (2002). Outbreak of Leptospirosis among Triathlon participants and community residents in Springfield, Illinois, 1998. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 34, 1593–1599.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Naiman, B. M., Alt, D., Bolin, C. A., Zuerner, R., & Baldwin, C. L. (2001). Protective killed Leptospira borgpetersenii vaccine induces potent Th1 immunity comprising responses by CD4 and γδ T lymphocytes. Infection and Immunity, 69, 7550–7558.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Nally, J. E., Chow, E., Fishbein, M. C., Blanco, D. R., & Lovett, M. A. (2005). Changes in lipopolysaccharide O antigen distinguish acute versus chronic Leptospira interrogans infections. Infection and Immunity, 73, 3251–3260.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Nally, J. E., Timoney, J. F., & Stevenson, B. (2001). Temperature-regulated protein synthesis by Leptospira interrogans. Infection and Immunity, 69, 400–404.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Nascimento, A. L., Ko, A. I., Martins, E. A., Monteiro-Vitorello, C. B., Ho, P. L., Haake, D. A., et al. (2004). Comparative genomics of two Leptospira interrogans serovars reveals novel insights into physiology and pathogenesis. Journal of Bacteriology, 186, 2164–2172.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Palaniappan, R. U., Chang, Y. F., Chang, C. F., Pan, M. J., Yang, C. W., Harpending, P., et al. (2005). Evaluation of lig-based conventional and real time PCR for the detection of pathogenic leptospires. Molecular and Cellular Probes, 19, 111–117.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Panaphut, T., Domrongkitchaiporn, S., Vibhagool, A., Thinkamrop, B., & Susaengrat, W. (2003). Ceftriaxone compared with sodium penicillin G for treatment of severe leptospirosis. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 36, 1507–1513.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Patz, J. A., & Kovats, R. S. (2002). Hotspots in climate change and human health. British Medical Journal, 325, 1094–1098.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Pérolat, P., Chappel, R. J., Adler, B., Baranton, G., Bulach, D. M., Billinghurst, M. L., et al. (1998). Leptospira fainei sp. nov., isolated from pigs in Australia. International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology, 48, 851–858.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Pike, R. M. (1976). Laboratory-associated infections: summary and analysis of 3921 cases. Health Laboratory Science, 13, 105–114.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Prescott, J. F., McEwen, B., Taylor, J., Woods, J. P., Abrams-Ogg, A., & Wilcock, B. (2002). Resurgence of leptospirosis in dogs in Ontario: recent findings. Canadian Veterinary Journal, 43, 955–961.

    Google Scholar 

  102. Ramadass, P., Jarvis, B. D. W., Corner, R. J., Penny, D., & Marshall, R. B. (1992). Genetic characterization of pathogenic Leptospira species by DNA hybridization. International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology, 42, 215–219.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Ren, S. X., Fu, G., Jiang, X. G., Zeng, R., Miao, Y. G., Xu, H., et al. (2003). Unique physiological and pathogenic features of Leptospira interrogans revealed by whole-genome sequencing. Nature, 422, 888–893.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Romero, E. C., Caly, C. R., & Yasuda, P. H. (1998). The persistence of leptospiral agglutinins titers in human sera diagnosed by the microscopic agglutination test. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, 40, 183–184.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Salaun, L., Merien, F., Gurianova, S., Baranton, G., & Picardeau, M. (2006). Application of multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis for molecular typing of the agent of leptospirosis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 44, 3954–3962.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Sanders, E. J., Rigau-Perez, J. G., Smits, H. L., Deseda, C. C., Vorndam, V. A., Aye, T., et al. (1999). Increase of leptospirosis in dengue-negative patients after a hurricane in Puerto Rico in 1996. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 61, 399–404.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Segura, E. R., Ganoza, C. A., Campos, K., Ricaldi, J. N., Torres, S., Silva, H., et al. (2005). Clinical spectrum of pulmonary involvement in leptospirosis in a region of endemicity, with quantification of leptospiral burden. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 40, 343–351.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Sehgal, S. C., Sugunan, A. P., Murhekar, M. V., Sharma, S., & Vijayachari, P. (2000). Randomized controlled trial of doxycycline prophylaxis against leptospirosis in an endemic area. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, 13, 249–255.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Sejvar, J., Bancroft, E., Winthrop, K., Bettinger, J., Bajani, M., Bragg, S., et al. (2003). Leptospirosis in “Eco-Challenge” athletes, Malaysian Borneo, 2000. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 9, 702–707.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Self, C. A., Iskrzynska, W. I., Waitkins, S. A., Whicher, J. W., & Whicher, J. T. (1987). Leptospirosis among British cavers. Cave Science, 14, 131–134.

    Google Scholar 

  111. Slack, A., Symonds, M., Dohnt, M., Harris, C., Brookes, D., & Smythe, L. (2007). Evaluation of a modified Taqman assay detecting pathogenic Leptospira spp. against culture and Leptospira-specific IgM enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in a clinical environment. Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease, 57, 361–366.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Slack, A., Symonds, M., Dohnt, M., & Smythe, L. (2006a). An improved multiple-locus variable number of tandem repeats analysis for Leptospira interrogans serovar Australis: a comparison with fluorescent amplified fragment length polymorphism analysis and its use to redefine the molecular epidemiology of this serovar in Queensland, Australia. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 55, 1549–1557.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Slack, A. T., Dohnt, M. F., Symonds, M. L., & Smythe, L. D. (2005). Development of a multiple-locus variable number of tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) for Leptospira interrogans and its application to Leptospira interrogans serovar Australis isolates from far North Queensland, Australia. Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials, 4, 10.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Slack, A. T., Symonds, M. L., Dohnt, M. F., & Smythe, L. D. (2006b). Identification of pathogenic Leptospira species by conventional or real-time PCR and sequencing of the DNA gyrase subunit B encoding gene. BMC Microbiology, 6, 95.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Smits, H. L., Ananyina, Y. V., Chereshsky, A., Dancel, L., Lai, A. F. R. F., Chee, H. D., et al. (1999). International multicenter evaluation of the clinical utility of a dipstick assay for detection of Leptospira-specific immunoglobulin M antibodies in human serum specimens. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 37, 2904–2909.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Smythe, L. D., Smith, I. L., Smith, G. A., Dohnt, M. F., Symonds, M. L., Barnett, L. J., et al. (2002). A quantitative PCR (TaqMan) assay for pathogenic Leptospira spp. BMC Infectious Diseases, 2, 13.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Suputtamongkol, Y., Niwattayakul, K., Suttinont, C., Losuwanaluk, K., Limpaiboon, R., Chierakul, W., et al. (2004). An open, randomized, controlled trial of penicillin, doxycycline, and cefotaxime for patients with severe leptospirosis. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 39, 1417–1424.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Swain, R. H. A. (1957). The electron-microscopical anatomy of Leptospira canicola. Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology, 73, 155–158.

    Google Scholar 

  119. Takafuji, E. T., Kirkpatrick, J. W., Miller, R. N., Karwacki, J. J., Kelley, P. W., Gray, M. R., et al. (1984). An efficacy trial of doxycycline chemoprophylaxis against leptospirosis. New England Journal of Medicine, 310, 497–500.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Terpstra, W. J. (1992). Typing leptospira from the perspective of a reference laboratory. Acta Leidensia, 60, 79–87.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Terpstra, W. J., Ligthart, G. S., & Schoone, G. J. (1980). Serodiagnosis of human leptospirosis by enzyme-linked-immunosorbent-assay (ELISA). Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Mikrobiologie und Hygiene: I Abt. Orig. A, 247, 400–405.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Trevejo, R. T., Rigau-Perez, J. G., Ashford, D. A., McClure, E. M., Jarquin-Gonzalez, C., Amador, J. J., et al. (1998). Epidemic leptospirosis associated with pulmonary hemorrhage-Nicaragua, 1995. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 178, 1457–1463.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Truccolo, J., Serais, O., Merien, F., & Perolat, P. (2001). Following the course of human leptospirosis: evidence of a critical threshold for the vital prognosis using a quantitative PCR assay. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 204, 317–321.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Tunbridge, A. J., Dockrell, D. H., Channer, K. S., & McKendrick, M. W. (2002). A breathless triathlete. Lancet, 359, 130.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Turner, L. H. (1968). Leptospirosis II. Serology. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 62, 880–889.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Vaughan, C., Cronin, C. C., Walsh, E. K., & Whelton, M. (1994). The Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction in leptospirosis. Postgraduate Medical Journal, 70, 118–121.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Verma, A., Artiushin, S., Matsunaga, J., Haake, D. A., & Timoney, J. F. (2005). LruA and LruB, novel lipoproteins of pathogenic Leptospira interrogans associated with equine recurrent uveitis. Infection and Immunity, 73, 7259–7266.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Verma, A., Hellwage, J., Artiushin, S., Zipfel, P. F., Kraiczy, P., Timoney, J. F., et al. (2006). LfhA, a novel factor H-binding protein of Leptospira interrogans. Infection and Immunity, 74, 2659–2666.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Vernel-Pauillac, F., & Merien, F. (2006). Proinflammatory and immunomodulatory cytokine mRNA time course profiles in hamsters infected with a virulent variant of Leptospira interrogans. Infection and Immunity, 74, 4172–4179.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Vijayachari, P., Ahmed, N., Sugunan, A. P., Ghousunnissa, S., Rao, K. R., Hasnain, S. E., et al. (2004). Use of fluorescent amplified fragment length polymorphism for molecular epidemiology of leptospirosis in India. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 42, 3575–3580.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Vijayachari, P., Sugunan, A. P., Umapathi, T., & Sehgal, S. C. (2001). Evaluation of darkground microscopy as a rapid diagnostic procedure in leptospirosis. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 114, 54–58.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Vinetz, J. M., Glass, G. E., Flexner, C. E., Mueller, P., & Kaslow, D. C. (1996). Sporadic urban leptospirosis. Annals of Internal Medicine, 125, 794–798.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Vinetz, J. M., Wilcox, B. A., Aguirre, A., Gollin, L. X., Katz, A. R., Fujioka, R. S., et al. (2005). Beyond disciplinary boundaries: leptospirosis as a model of incorporating transdisciplinary approaches to understand infectious disease emergence. EcoHealth, 2, 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  134. Viriyakosol, S., Matthias, M. A., Swancutt, M. A., Kirkland, T. N., & Vinetz, J. M. (2006). Toll-like receptor 4 protects against lethal Leptospira interrogans serovar Icterohaemorrhagiae infection and contributes to in vivo control of leptospiral burden. Infection and Immunity, 74, 887–895.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Wagenaar, J., Zuerner, R. L., Alt, D., & Bolin, C. A. (2000). Comparison of polymerase chain reaction assays with bacteriologic culture, immunofluorescence, and nucleic acid hybridization for detection of Leptospira borgpetersenii serovar hardjo in urine of cattle. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 61, 316–320.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Ward, M. P., Guptill, L. F., Prahl, A., & Wu, C. C. (2004). Serovar-specific prevalence and risk factors for leptospirosis among dogs: 90 cases (1997–2002). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 224, 1958–1963.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Ward, M. P., Guptill, L. F., & Wu, C. C. (2004). Evaluation of environmental risk factors for leptospirosis in dogs: 36 cases (1997–2002). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 225, 72–77.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Watt, G., Padre, L. P., Tuazon, M., & Calubaquib, C. (1990). Limulus lysate positivity and herxheimer-like reactions in leptospirosis: a placebo-controlled study. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 162, 564–567.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Werts, C., Tapping, R. I., Mathison, J. C., Chuang, T. H., Kravchenko, V., Saint Girons, I., et al. (2001). Leptospiral lipopolysaccharide activates cells through a TLR2-dependent mechanism. Nature Immunology, 2, 346–352.

    Google Scholar 

  140. Winslow, W. E., Merry, D. J., Pirc, M. L., & Devine, P. L. (1997). Evaluation of a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of immunoglobulin M antibody in diagnosis of human leptospiral infection. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 35, 1938–1942.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. World Health Organization. (1999). Leptospirosis worldwide, 1999. Weekly Epidemiological Record, 74, 237–242.

    Google Scholar 

  142. World Health Organization. (2000). Leptospirosis, India. Report of the investigation of a post-cyclone outbreak in Orissa, November 1999. Weekly Epidemiological Record, 75, 217–223.

    Google Scholar 

  143. Yasuda, P. H., Steigerwalt, A. G., Sulzer, K. R., Kaufmann, A. F., Rogers, F., & Brenner, D. J. (1987). Deoxyribonucleic acid relatedness between serogroups and serovars in the family Leptospiraceae with proposals for seven new Leptospira species. International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology, 37, 407–415.

    Google Scholar 

  144. Zaki, S. R., Shieh, W.-J., & The Epidemic Working Group. (1996). Leptospirosis associated with outbreak of acute febrile illness and pulmonary haemorrhage, Nicaragua, 1995. Lancet, 347, 535.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Zhang, Y. X., Geng, Y., Bi, B., He, J. Y., Wu, C. F., Guo, X. K., et al. (2005). Identification and classification of all potential hemolysin encoding genes and their products from Leptospira interrogans serogroup Icterohaemorrhagiae serovar Lai. Acta Pharmacologica Sinica, 26, 453–461.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Saskatchewan Disease Control Laboratory, Saskatchewan Health, Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada S4S 5W6

    Paul N. Levett

  2. Queen Elizabeth Hospital, St. Michael BB11155, Barbados, West Indies

    Charles N. Edwards

Authors
  1. Paul N. Levett
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Charles N. Edwards
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Paul N. Levett .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Clifton Road NE., 1518, Atlanta, 30322, U.S.A.

    Philip S. Brachman

  2. College of Medicine, Office of Faculty Affairs, Drexel University, Race Street 1505, Philadelphia, 19102, U.S.A.

    Elias Abrutyn

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Levett, P.N., Edwards, C.N. (2009). Leptospirosis. In: Brachman, P., Abrutyn, E. (eds) Bacterial Infections of Humans. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09843-2_21

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09843-2_21

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-387-09842-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-0-387-09843-2

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation