There are several quite different disease patterns that result from human infection with chlamydial organisms. Infection with Chlamydia trachomatis may result in trachoma, a variety of other syndromes that accompany ocular or genital infection, or lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV). Chlamydia psittaci has one human disease manifestation—psittacosis. Chlamydia pneumoniae causes respiratory disease and infection has been associated with coronary artery disease.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Thygeson, P., Trachoma virus: historical background and review of isolates, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 98:6–13 (1962).
Halberstaedter, L. and von Prowazek, S., Uber Zelleinschlusse parasitarer Natur beim Trachom, Arb. Kaiser. Gesund. 26:44–47 (1907).
Lindner, K., Zur Trachomforschung, Z. Augenheilkd. 22:547–549 (1909).
Nicolle, C., Cuenod, A. and Blaisot, L., Étude experimentalle du trachome, Arch. Inst. Pasteur. Tunis. 3:185–188 (1911).
Julianelle, L. A., The Etiology of Trachoma, The Commonwealth Fund, New York, 1938.
Bedson, S. P., The psittacosis–lymphogranuloma group of viruses, Br. Med. Bull. 9:226–227 (1953).
Rake, G., Shaffer, M. F. and Thygeson, P., Relationship of agents of trachoma and inclusion conjunctivitis to those of lymphogranuloma–psittacosis group, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 99:545–547 (1942).
Thygeson, P. and Stone Jr, W., The epidemiology of inclusion conjunctivitis, Arch. Ophthal. 27:91–122 (1942).
T’ang F, F., Chang H, L., Huang Y, T., et al., Trachoma virus in chick embryo, Zhonghua. Yi. Xue. Za. Zhi. 43:81–86 (1957).
Collier, L. H. and Sowa, J., Isolation of trachoma virus in embryonate eggs, Lancet 1(7028):993–996 (1958).
Jones, B. R., Collier, L. H. and Smith, C. H., Isolation of virus from inclusion blennorrhoea, Lancet 1:902 (1959).
Gordon, F. B., Harper, I. A., Quan, A. L., et al., Detection of Chlamydia (Bedsonia) in certain infections of man. I. Laboratory procedures: comparison of yolk sac and cell culture for detection and isolation, J. Infect. Dis. 120(4):451–462 (1969).
Wang, S. P., Kuo, C. C. and Grayston, J. T., A simplified method for immunological typing of trachoma-inclusion conjunctivitis-lymphogranuloma venereum organisms, Infect. Immun. 7(3):356–360 (1973).
Wang, S. P., Grayston, J. T., Alexander, E. R., et al., Simplified microimmunofluorescence test with trachoma-lymphogranuloma venereum (Chlamydia trachomatis) antigens for use as a screening test for antibody, J. Clin. Microbiol. 1(3):250–255 (1975).
Jüergensen, T., Handbuch der Speziellen Pathologie und Therapie. Handbuch der Krankheiten des Respirations-Aparates, Vogel, Leipzig, 1874.
Hunter, J., A Treatise on the Venereal Disease. J. Webster, Philadelphia, 1818.
Bedson, S. P., The use of the complement-fixation reaction in the diagnosis of human psittacosis, Lancet 2:1277–1280 (1935).
Moulder, J. W., Comparative biology of intracellular parasitism, Microbiol. Rev. 49(3):298–337 (1985).
Stephens, R. S., Chlamydia: Intracellular Biology, Pathogenesis, and Immunity, ASM Press, Washington, D.C., 1999.
Grayston, J. T., Kuo, C. C., Wang, S. P., et al., A new Chlamydia psittaci strain, TWAR, isolated in acute respiratory tact infections, N. Engl. J. Med. 315(3):161–168 (1986).
Saikku, P., Leinonen, M., Mattila, K., et al., Serological evidence of an association of a novel Chlamydia, TWAR, with chronic coronary heart disease and acute myocardial infarction, Lancet 2(8618):983–986 (1988).
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance, 2004, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA, September 2005.
Gerbase, A. C., Rowley, J. T., Heymann, D. H., et al., Global prevalence and incidence estimates of selected curable STDs, Sex. Transm. Dis. 74(Suppl 1):S12–S16 (1998).
Washington, A. E., Johnson, R. E., Sanders, L. L., et al., Incidence of Chlamydia trachomatis infections in the United States using reported Neisseria gonorrhoeae as a surrogate, in: Chlamydial Infections: Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Human Chlamydial Infections (D. Oriel, G. Ridgway, J. Schachter, et al., eds.) pp 487–490, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986.
Cates, W. Jr., Estimates of the incidence and prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases in the United States. (American Social Health Association Panel), Sex. Transm. Dis. 26(4 Suppl):S2–S7 (1999).
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Lymphogranuloma venereum among men who have sex with men—Netherlands, 2003–2004, MMWR. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 53(42):985–988 (2004).
World Health Organization, Guide to Trachoma Control, World Health Organization, Geneva, 1981.
Yoneda, C., Dawson, C. R., Daghfous, T., et al., Cytology as a guide to the presence of chlamydial inclusions in Giemsa-stained conjunctival smears in severe endemic trachoma, Br. J. Ophthalmol. 59(3):116–124 (1975).
Stamm, W. E., Diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis genitourinary infections, Ann. Intern. Med. 108(5):710–717 (1988).
Schachter, J., NAATs to diagnose Chlamydia trachomatis genital infection: a promise still unfulfilled, Expert. Rev. Mol. Diagn. 1(2):137–144 (2001).
Ripa, K. T. and Mårdh, P. A., Cultivation of Chlamydia trachomatis in cycloheximide-treated McCoy cells, J. Clin. Microbiol. 6(4):328–331 (1977).
Cles, L. D. and Stamm, W. E., Use of HL cells for improved isolation and passage of Chlamydia pneumoniae, J. Clin. Microbiol. 28(5):938–940 (1990).
Hyman, C. L., Roblin, P. M., Gaydos, C. A., et al., Prevalence of asymptomatic nasopharyngeal carriage of Chlamydia pneumoniae in subjectively healthy adults: assessment by polymerase chain reaction-enzyme immunoassay and culture, Clin. Infect. Dis. 20(5):1174–1178 (1995).
Clarke, L. M., Sierra, M. F., Daidone, B. J., et al., Comparison of the Syva MicroTrak enzyme immunoassay and Gen-Probe PACE 2 with cell culture for diagnosis of cervical Chlamydia trachomatis infection in a high-prevalence female population, J. Clin. Microbiol. 31(4):968–971 (1993).
Bobo, L., Coutlee, F., Yolken, R. H., et al., Diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis cervical infection by detection of amplified DNA with an enzyme immunoassay, J. Clin. Microbiol. 28(9):1968–1973 (1990).
Schachter, J., Stamm, W. E., Quinn, T. C., et al., Ligase chain reaction to detect Chlamydia trachomatis infection of the cerix, J. Clin. Microbiol. 32(10):2540–2543 (1994).
Chernesky, M. A., Lee, H., Schachter, J., et al., Diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis urethral infection in symptomatic and asymptomatic men by testing first-void urine in a ligase chain reaction assay, J. Infect. Dis. 170(5):1308–1311 (1994).
Jaschek, G., Gaydos, C. A., Welsh, L. E., et al., Direct detection of Chlamydia trachomatis in urine specimens from symptomatic and asymptomatic men by using a rapid polymerase chain reaction assay, J. Clin. Microbiol. 31(5):1209–1212 (1993).
Lee, H. H., Chernesky, M. A., Schachter, J., et al., Diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis genitourinary infection in women by ligase chain reaction assay of urine, Lancet 345(8944):213–216 (1995).
Schachter, J., Chlamydiae, in: Manual of Clinical Laboratory Immunology, 4th ed. (N. R. Rose, E. Conway de Macario, J. L. Fahey, et al., eds.), pp 661–666, American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C., 1992.
Schachter, J., Smith, D. E., Dawson, C. R., et al., Lymphogranuloma venereum. I. Comparison of the Frei test, complement fixation test, and isolation of the agent, J. Infect. Dis. 120(3):372–375 (1969).
Alexander, E. R., Wang, S. P. and Grayston, J. T., Further classification of TRIC agents from ocular trachoma and other sources by the mouse toxicity prevention test, Am. J. Ophthalmol. 63(5):S1469–S1478 (1967).
Moulder, J. W., The relation of the psittacosis group (Chlamydiae) to bacteria and viruses, Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 20:107–130 (1966).
Alexander, E. R., Chlamydia: The organism and neonatal infection. Hosp. Pract. 14:63–69 (1979).
Campbell, L. A., Kuo, C. C. and Grayston, J. T., Characterization of the new Chlamydia agent, TWAR, as a unique organism by restriction endonuclease analysis and DNA-DNA hybridization, J. Clin. Microbiol. 25(10):1911–1916 (1987).
Jones, B. R., The prevention of blindness from trachoma, Trans. Ophthalmol. Soc. U. K. 95(1):16–33 (1975).
Schachter, J. and Dawson, C. R., Human Chlamydial Infections, PSG Publishing Company, Inc., Littleton, MA, 1978.
Dawson, C. R., Hanna, L. and Jawetz, E., Controlled treatment trials of trachoma in American Indian children, Lancet 2(7523):961–964 (1967).
West, S. K., Congdon, N., Katala, S., et al., Facial cleanliness and risk of trachoma in families, Arch. Ophthal. 109(6):855–857 (1991).
Nichols, R. L., Bobb, A. A., Haddad, N. A., et al., Immunofluorescent studies of the microbiologic epidemiology of trachoma in Saudi Arabia, Am. J. Ophthalmol. 63(5):S1372–S1408 (1967).
Mertz, K. J., McQuillan, G. M., Levine, W. C., et al., A pilot study of the prevalence of chlamydial infection in a national household survey, Sex. Transm. Dis. 25(5):225–228 (1998).
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Chlamydia trachomatis infections. Policy guidelines for prevention and control, MMWR. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 34(Suppl 3):53S–74S (1985).
Schachter, J., Stoner, E. and Moncada, J., Screening for chlamydial infections in women attending family planning clinics, West J. Med. 138(3):375–379 (1983).
Mårdh, P. A., An overview of infectious agents of salpingitis, their biology, and recent advances in methods of detection, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 138(7 Pt 2):933–951 (1980).
Wiesenfeld, H. C., Hillier, S. L., Krohn, M. A., et al., Lower genital tract infection and endometritis: insight into subclinical pelvic inflammatory disease, Obstet. Gynecol. 100(3):456–463 (2002).
Wager, G. P., Martin, D. H., Koutsky, L., et al., Puerperal infectious morbidity: relationship to route of delivery and to antepartum Chlamydia trachomatis infection, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 138(7 Pt 2):1028–1033 (1980).
Holmes, K. K., Handsfield, H. H., Wang, S. P., et al., Etiology of nongonococcal urethritis, N. Engl. J. Med. 292(23):1199–1205 (1975).
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines 2002, MMWR. Recomm. Rep. 51(RR-6):1–78 (2002).
Keat, A. C., Thomas, B. J., Taylor-Robinson, D., et al., Evidence of Chlamydia trachomatis infection in sexually acquired reactive arthritis, Ann. Rheum. Dis. 39(5):431–437 (1980).
Kousa, M., Saikku, P., Richmond, S., et al., Frequent association of chlamydial infection with Reiter’s syndrome, Sex. Transm. Dis. 5(2):57–61 (1978).
Schachter, J., Grossman, M., Sweet, R. L., et al., Prospective study of perinatal transmission of Chlamydia trachomatis, JAMA 255(24):3374–3377 (1986).
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Summary of notifiable diseases, United States, 1993, MMWR. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 42 (53):i–73 (1994).
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Summary of notifiable diseases—United States, 2004, MMWR. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 53(53):1–79 (2006).
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Psittacosis surveillance, 1975–1984, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA, 1987.
Grayston, J. T., Chlamydia pneumoniae, strain TWAR pneumonia, Annu. Rev. Med. 43:317–323 (1992).
Kleemola, M., Saikku, P., Visakorpi, R., et al., Epidemics of pneumonia caused by TWAR, a new Chlamydia organism, in military trainees in Finland, J. Infect. Dis. 157(2):230–236 (1988).
Malaty, R., Zaki, S., Said, M. E., et al., Extraocular infections in children in areas with endemic trachoma, J. Infect. Dis. 143(6):853 (1981).
Emerson, P. M., Lindsay, S. W., Alexander, N., et al., Role of flies and provision of latrines in trachoma control: cluster-randomised controlled trial, Lancet 363(9415):1093–1098 (2004).
Meyer, K. F., The host spectrum of psittacosis-lymphogranuloma venereum (PL) agents, Am. J. Ophthalmol. 63(5):S1225–S1246 (1967).
Bobo, L. D., Novak, N., Munoz, B., et al., Severe disease in children with trachoma is associated with persistent Chlamydia trachomatis infection, J. Infect. Dis. 176(6):1524–1530 (1997).
West, S. K., Munoz, B., Mkocha, H., et al., Infection with Chlamydia trachomatis after mass treatment of a trachoma hyperendemic community in Tanzania: a longitudinal study, Lancet 366(9493):1296–1300 (2005).
Taylor, H. R., Johnson, S. L., Schachter, J., et al., Pathogenesis of trachoma: the stimulus for inflammation, J. Immunol. 138(9):3023–3027 (1987).
Patton, D. L., Kuo, C. C., Wang, S. P., et al., Distal tubal obstruction induced by repeated Chlamydia trachomatis salpingeal infections in pig-tailed macaques, J. Infect. Dis. 155(6):1292–1299 (1987).
Mordhorst, C. H., Wang, S. P. and Grayston, J. T., Childhood trachoma in a nonendemic area. Danish trachoma patients and their close contacts, 1963–1973, JAMA 239(17):1765–1771 (1978).
Dawson, C. R., Jones, B. R. and Darougar, S., Blinding and non-blinding trachoma: assessment of intensity of upper tarsal inflammatory disease and disabling lesions, Bull. World Health Organ. 52(3):279–282 (1975).
Brunham, R. C., Paavonen, J., Stevens, C. E., et al., Mucopurulent cervicitis—the ignored counterpart in women of urethritis in men, N. Engl. J. Med. 311(1):1–6 (1984).
Jones, R. B., Mammel, J. B., Shepard, M. K., et al., Recovery of Chlamydia trachomatis from the endometrium of women at risk for chlamydial infection, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 155(1):35–39 (1986).
Westrom, L., Joesoef, R., Reynolds, G., et al., Pelvic inflammatory disease and fertility. A cohort study of 1,844 women with laparoscopically verified disease and 657 control women with normal laparoscopic results, Sex. Transm. Dis. 19(4):185–192 (1992).
Stamm, W. E., Wagner, K. F., Amsel, R., et al., Causes of the acute urethral syndrome in women, N. Engl. J. Med. 303(8):409–415 (1980).
Keat, A., Thomas, B., Dixey, J., et al., Chlamydia trachomatis and reactive arthritis: the missing link, Lancet 1(8524):72–74 (1987).
Schachter, J. and Grossman, M., Chlamydial infections, Annu. Rev. Med. 32:45–61 (1981).
Beem, M. O. and Saxon, E. M., Respiratory-tract colonization and a distinctive pneumonia syndrome in infants infected with Chlamydia trachomatis, N. Engl. J. Med. 296(6):306–310 (1977).
Taylor-Robinson, D., Mycoplasma genitalium—an up-date, Int. J. STD. AIDS. 13(3):145–151 (2002).
Schachter, J., Grossman, M. and Azimi, P. H., Serology of Chlamydia trachomatis in infants, J. Infect. Dis. 146(4):530–535 (1982).
Spaargaren, J., Fennema, H. S., Morre, S. A., et al., New lymphogranuloma venereum Chlamydia trachomatis variant, Amsterdam, Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11(7):1090–1092 (2005).
Schachter, J. and Moncada, J., Lymphogranuloma venereum: how to turn an endemic disease into an outbreak of a new disease? Start looking, Sex. Transm. Dis. 32(6):331–332 (2005).
Spaargaren, J., Schachter, J., Moncada, J., et al., Slow epidemic of lymphogranuloma venereum L2b strain, Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11(11):1787–1788 (2005).
Hahn, D. L., Dodge, R. W. and Golubjatnikov, R., Association of Chlamydia pneumoniae (strain TWAR) infection with wheezing, asthmatic bronchitis, and adult-onset asthma, JAMA 266(2):225–230 (1991).
Grayston, J. T., Kronmal, R. A., Jackson, L. A., et al., Azithromycin for the secondary prevention of coronary events, N. Engl. J. Med. 352(16):1637–1645 (2005).
Hammerschlag, M. R., Apfalter, P., Boman, J., et al., The role of Chlamydia pneumoniae in multiple sclerosis: real or fictitious?, J. Infect. Dis. 192 (7):author (2005).
Boman, J. and Hammerschlag, M. R., Chlamydia pneumoniae and atherosclerosis: critical assessment of diagnostic methods and relevance to treatment studies, Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 15(1):1–20 (2002).
Chernesky, M., Smieja, M., Schachter, J., et al., Comparison of an industry-derived LCx Chlamydia pneumoniae PCR research kit to in-house assays performed in five laboratories, J. Clin. Microbiol. 40(7):2357–2362 (2002).
Schachter, J., West, S. K., Mabey, D., et al., Azithromycin in control of trachoma, Lancet 354(9179):630–635 (1999).
Schachter, J., Sweet, R. L., Grossman, M., et al., Experience with the routine use of erythromycin for chlamydial infections in pregnancy, N. Engl. J. Med. 314(5):276–279 (1986).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Schachter, J., Alexander, E.R. (2009). Chlamydial Infections. In: Brachman, P., Abrutyn, E. (eds) Bacterial Infections of Humans. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09843-2_11
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09843-2_11
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-0-387-09842-5
Online ISBN: 978-0-387-09843-2
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)