Skip to main content

Architecture of Normal Villous Trees

  • Chapter
Pathology of the Human Placenta
  • 4729 Accesses

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 219.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Ahmed, A. and Kilby, M.: Commentary: Hypoxia or hyperoxia in placental insufficiency? Lancet 350:826–827, 1997.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed, A. and Perkins, J.: Angiogenesis and intrauterine growth restriction. Baillieres Best Pract. Res. Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol. 14:981–988, 2000.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed, A., Li, X.F., Dunk, C., Whittle, M.J., Rushton, D.I. and Rollason, T.: Colocalisation of vascular endothelial growth factor and its flt-1 receptor in human placenta. Growth Factors 12:235–243, 1995.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed, A., Whittle, M.J. and Khaliq, A.: Differential expression of placenta growth factor (PIGF) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in abnormal placentation. J. Soc. Gynecol. Invest. 4:A663, 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed, A., Dunk, C., Ahmad, S. and Khaliq, A.: Regulation of placental vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and placenta growth factor (PlGF) and soluble Flt-1 by oxygen—a review. Placenta, 21: suppl. A. Troph. Res. 14:S16–S24, 2000.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aladjem, S.: Morphopathology of the human placental villi and the fetal outcome. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Br. Commonw. 75:1237–1244, 1968.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alon, T., Hemo, I., Itin, A., Pe’er, J., Stone, J. and Keshet, E.: Vascular endothelial growth factor acts as a survival factor for newly formed retinal vessels and has implications for retinopathy of prematurity. Nature Med. 1:1024–1028, 1995.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alvarez, H.: Syncytial proliferation in normal and toxemic pregnancies. Obstet. Gynecol. 29:637–643, 1967.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alvarez, H., De Bejar, R. and Aladjem, S.: La placenta human. Aspectos morfologicos y fisio-patologicos. In, 4th Uruguayan Congress for Obstetrics and Gynecology 1:190–261, 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alvarez, H., Morel, R.L., Benedetti, W.L. and Scavarelli, M.: Trophoblast hyperplasia and maternal arterial pressure at term. Amer. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 105:1015–1021, 1969.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alvarez, H., Benedetti, W.L., Morel. R.L. and Scavarelli, M.: Trophoblast development gradient and its relationship to placental hemodynamics. Amer. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 106:416–420, 1970.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alvarez, H., Medrano, C.V., Sala, M.A. and Benedetti, W.L.: Trophoblast development gradient and its relationship to placental hemodynamics. II. Study of fetal cotyledons from the toxemic placenta. Amer. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 114:873–878, 1972.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Amaladoss, A.S.P. and Burton, G.J.: Organ culture of human placental villi in hypoxic and hyperoxic conditions: a morphometric study. J. Dev. Physiol. 7:13–118, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amstutz, E.: Beobachtungen Über die Reifung der Chorionzotten in der menschlichen Placenta mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Epithelplatten. Acta Anat. (Basel) 42:12–30, 1960.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ara, G., Bari, M.A. and Siddiquey, A.K.: Effects of age, parity and length of pregnancy on the morphology and histology of human placenta. Bangladesh Med. Res. Counc. Bull. 10:53–58, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arnholdt, H., Meisel, F., Fandrey, K. and Löhrs, U.: Proliferation of villous trophoblast of the human placenta in normal and abnormal pregnancies. Virchows Arch. B Cell Pathol. 60:365–372, 1991.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arts, N.F.T.: Investigation on the vascular system of the placenta. I. General introduction and the fetal vascular system. Amer. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 82:147–166, 1961.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bacon, B.J., Gilbert, R.D., Kaufmann, P., Smith, A.D., Trevino, F.T. and Longo, L.D.: Placental anatomy and diffusing capacity in guinea pigs following long-term maternal hypoxia. Placenta 5:475–488, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baker, P.N., Krasnow, J., Roberts, J.M. and Yeo, K.T.: Elevated serum levels of vascular endothelial growth factor in patients with preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol 86:815–821, 1995.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Banks, R.E., Forbes, M.A., Searles, J., Pappin, D., Canas, B., Rahman, D., Kaufmann, S., Walters, C.E., Jackson, A., Eves, P., Linton, G., Keen, J., Walker, J.J. and Selby, P.J.: Evidence for the existence of a novel pregnancy-associated soluble variant of the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor, Flt-1. Mol. Human Reprod. 4:377–386, 1998.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Banovac, K., Ryan, E.A. and O’Sullivan, M.J.: Triiodothyronine (T3) nuclear binding sites in human placenta and decidua. Placenta 7:543–549, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bär, T., Güldner, F.H. and Wolff, J.R.: “Seamless” endothelial cells of blood capillaries. Cell Tiss. Res. 235:99–106, 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartels, H. and Moll, W.: Passage of inert substances and oxygen in the human placenta. Pfluegers Arch. Gesamte Physiol. 280:165, 1964.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Becker, V.: Mechanismus der Reifung fetaler Organe. Verh. Dtsch. Ges. Pathol. 46:309–314, 1962a.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Becker, V.: Funktionelle Morphologie der Plazenta. Arch. Gynäkol. 198:3–28, 1962b.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, V.: Pathologie der Ausreifung der Plazenta. In, Die Plazenta des Menschen. V. Becker, T.H. Schiebler and F. Kubli, eds., pp. 266–281. Thieme, Stuttgart, 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, V. and Jipp, P.: Über die Trophoblastschale der menschlichen Plazenta. Geburtsh. Frauenheilk. 23:466–474, 1963.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Becker, V. and Seifert, K.: Die Ultrastruktur der Kapillarwand in der menschlichen Placenta zur Zeit der Schwangerschaftsmitte. Z. Zellforsch. 65:380–396, 1965.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beischer, N.A., Sivasamboo, R., Vohra, S., Silpisornkosal, S. and Reid, S.: Placental hypertrophy in severe pregnancy anaemia. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Br. Commonw. 77:398–409, 1970.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Benjamin, L.E. and Keshet, E.: Conditional switching of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression in tumors: induction of endothelial cell shedding and regression of hemangioblastoma-like vessels by VEGF withdrawal. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:8761–8766 1997.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boe, F.: Studies on the vascularization of the human placenta. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. (Suppl. 5) 32:1–92, 1953.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boe, F.: Studies on the human placenta. II. Gross morphology of the fetal structures in the young placenta. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 47:420–435, 1968.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boe, F.: Studies on the human placenta. III. Vascularization of the young fetal placenta. A. Vascularization of the chorionic villus. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 48:159–166, 1969.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Borell, U., Fernstroem, I. and Westman, A.: Eine arteriographische Studie des Plazentarkreislaufs. Geburtsh. Frauenheilkd. 18:1–9, 1958.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bouw, G.M., Stolte, L.A.M., Baak, J.P.A. and Oort, J.: Quantitative morphology of the placenta. 1. Standardization of sampling. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 6:325–331, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyd, J.D. and Hamilton, W.J.: The Human Placenta. Heffer, Cambridge, 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  • Breier, G.: Angiogenesis in embryonic development—a review. Placenta 21: suppl A. Troph. Res. 14:S11–S15, 2000.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brosens, I.A.: The uteroplacental vessels at term-the distribution and extent of physiological changes. Trophoblast Res. 3:61–67, 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bukovsky, A., Caudle, M.R., Keenan, J.A., Wimalasena, J. and McKenzie, P.P.: Thy-1 differentiation protein and monocyte-derived cells during regeneration and aging of human placental villi. Amer. J. Reprod. Immunol. 42:135–152, 1999.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burri, P. and Tarek, M.R.: A novel mechanism of capillary growth in the rat pulmonary microcirculation. Anat. Rec. 228:35–45, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burton, G.J.: The fine structure of the human placental villus as revealed by scanning electron microscopy. Scanning Electron Microsc. 1:1811–1828, 1987.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burton, G.J.: On “Oxygen and placental villous development: origins of fetal hypoxia.” Placenta 18:625–626, 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burton, G.J. and Caniggia, I.: Hypoxia: implications for implantation to delivery-a workshop report. Placenta 22:Suppl. A: S63–S65, 2001.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burton, G.J. and Palmer, M.E.: Eradicating fetomaternal fluid shift during perfusion fixation of the human placenta. Placenta 9:327–332, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Caniggia, I., Mostachfi, H., Winter, J., Gassmann, M., Lye, S.J., Kuliszewski, M. and Post, M.: Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 mediates the biological effects of oxygen on human trophoblast differentiation through TGFbeta(3). J. Clin. Invest 105:577–587, 2000.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cantle, S.J., Kaufmann, P., Luckhardt, M. and Schweikhart, G.: Interpretation of syncytial sprouts and bridges in the human placenta. Placenta 8:221–234, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cao, Y., Chen, H., Zhou, L., Chiang, M.K., Anand-Apte, B., Weatherbee, J.A., Wang, Y., Fang, F., Flanagan, J.G. and Tsang, M.L.: Heterodimers of placenta growth factor/vascular endothelial growth factor. Endothelial activity, tumor cell expression, and high affinity binding to Flk-1/KDR. J. Biol. Chem. 271:3154–3162, 1996.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cappoen, J.P.: Physiology of the thyroid during pregnancy. Various exploratory tests. Rev. Fr. Gynecol. Obstet. 84:893–897, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carmeliet, P.: Angiogenesis in health and disease. Nature Med. 9:653–660, 2003.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Castellucci, M. and Kaufmann, P.: A three-dimensional study of the normal human placental villous core: II. Stromal architecture. Placenta 3:269–286, 1982a.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Castellucci, M. and Kaufmann, P.: Evolution of the stroma in human chorionic villi throughout pregnancy. Bibl. Anat. 22:40–45, 1982b.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellucci, M., Schweikhart, G., Kaufmann, P. and Zaccheo, D.: The stromal architecture of the immature intermediate villus of the human placenta. Gynecol. Obstet. Invest. 18:95–99, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Castellucci, M., Scheper, M., Scheffen, I., Celona, A. and Kaufmann, P.: The development of the human placental villous tree. Anat. Embryol. (Berl.) 181:117–128, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Castellucci, M. and Kaufmann, P.: A three-dimensional study of the normal human placental villous core: II. Stromal architecture. Placenta 3:269–286, 1982a.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Castellucci, M. and Kaufmann, P.: Evolution of the stroma in human chorionic villi throughout pregnancy. Bibl. Anat. 22:40–45, 1982b.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellucci, M., Schweikhart, G., Kaufmann, P. and Zaccheo, D.: The stromal architecture of the immature intermediate villus of the human placenta. Gynecol. Obstet. Invest. 18:95–99, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Castellucci, M., Scheper, M., Scheffen, I., Celona, A. and Kaufmann, P.: The development of the human placental villous tree. Anat. Embryol. (Berl.) 181:117–128, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Castellucci, M., Kosanke, G., Verdenelli, F., Huppertz, B., Kaufmann, P.: Villous sprouting: fundamental mechanisms of human placental development. Hum. Reprod. Update 6:485–494, 2000.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Challier, J.C., Hauguel, S. and Desmaizieres, V.: Effect of insulin on glucose uptake and metabolism in the human placenta. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 62:803–807, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Challier, J.C., Galtier, M., Kacemi, A. and Guillaumin, D.: Pericytes of term human foeto-placental microvessels: Ultrastructure and visualization. Cell Mol. Biol. 45:89–100, 1999.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chappell, L.C., Seed, P.T., Briley, A., Kelly, F..J, Hunt, B.J., Charnock-Jones, D.S., Mallet, A.I. and Poston, L.: A longitudinal study of biochemical variables in women at risk of preeclampsia. Amer. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 187:127–136, 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charnock-Jones, D.S., Kaufmann, P. and Mayhew, T.M.: Aspects of Human fetoplacental vasculogenesis and angiogenesis. I. Molecular regulation. Placenta 25:103–113, 2004.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chwalisz, K., Ciesla, I. and Garfield, R.E.: Inhibition of nitric oxide (NO) synthesis induces preterm parturition and preeclampsia-like conditions in guinea pigs. Presented at the Society for Gynecological Investigation Meeting, Chicago, IL, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, D.E., Smith, S.K., Sharkey, A.M. and Charnock-Jones, D.S.: Localization of VEGF and expression of its receptors flt and KDR in human placenta throughout pregnancy. Hum. Reprod. (Oxf.) 11:1090–1098, 1996a.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, D.E., Smith, S.K., Sharkey, A.M., Sowter, H.M. and Charnock-Jones, D.S.: Hepatocyte growth factor scatter factor and its receptor c-met: localization and expression in the human placenta throughout pregnancy. J. Endocrinol. 151:459–467, 1996b.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, D.E., Salvig, J.D., Smith, S.K. and Charnock-Jones, D.S.: Hepatocyte growth factor levels during normal and intrauterine growth-restricted pregnancies. Placenta 19:671–673, 1998a.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, D.E., Smith, S.K., He, Y., Day, K.A., Licence, D.R., Corps, A.C., Lammoglia, R. and Charnock-Jones, D.S.: A vascular endothelial growth factor antagonist is produced by the human placenta and released into the maternal circulation. Biol. Reprod. 59:1540–1548, 1998b.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, D.E., Smith, S.K., Licence, D., Evans, A.L and Charnock-Jones, D.S.: Comparison of expression patterns for placenta growth factor, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), VEGF-B and VEGF-C in the human placenta throughout gestation. J. Endocrinol. 159:459–467, 1998c.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, J.C., Sharkey, A.M., Charnock-Jones, D.S., Palmer, C.R. and Smith, S.K.: VEGF mRNA levels in placentae from pregnancies complicated by pre-eclampsia. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 103:1191–1196, 1996.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Crescimanno, C., Marzioni, D., Persico, M.G., Vuckovic, M., Mühlhauser, J. and Castellucci, M.: Expression of bFGF, PIGF and their receptors in the human placenta. Placenta 16:A13, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dantzer, V., Leiser, R., Kaufmann, P. and Luckhardt, M.: Comparative morphological aspects of placental vascularization. Trophoblast Res. 3:235–260, 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidoff, M. and Schiebler, T.H.: Über den Feinbau der Meerschweinchenplacenta während der Entwicklung. Z. Anat. Entwicklungsgesch. 130:234–254, 1970.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Demir, R., Kaufmann, P., Castellucci, M., Erbengi, T. and Kotowski, A.: Fetal vasculogenesis and angiogenesis in human placental villi. Acta Anat. (Basel) 136:190–203, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Demir, R., Demir, N., Kohnen, G., Kosanke, G., Mironov, V., Üstünel, I. and Kocamaz, E.: Ultrastructure and distribution of myofibroblast-like cells in human placental stem villi. Electron Microsc. 3:509–510, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Demir, R., Kosanke, G., Kohnen, G., Kertschanska, S. and Kaufmann, P.: Classification of human placental stem villi: review of structural and functional aspects. Microsc. Res. Tech. 38:29–41, 1997.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Demir, R., Kayisli, U.A., Seval, Y., Celik-Ozenci, C., Korgun, E.T., Demir Weusten, A.Y. and Huppertz, B.: Sequential expression of VEGF and its receptors in human placental villi during very early pregnancy: Differences between placental vasculogenesis and angiogenesis. Placenta 25:560–572, 2004.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dempsey, E.W.: The development of capillaries in the villi of early human placentas. Am. J. Anat. 134:221–238, 1972.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Desoye, G., Hartmann, M., Blaschitz, A., Dohr, G., Kohnen, G. and Kaufmann, P.: Insulin receptors in syncytiotrophoblast and fetal endothelium of human placenta. Immunohistochemical evidence for developmental changes in distribution pattern. Histochemistry 101:277–285, 1994.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Desoye G., Hartmann, M., Jones, C.J.P., Wolf, H.J., Kohnen, G., Kosanke, G. and Kaufmann, P.: Location of insulin receptors in the placenta and its progenitor tissues. Microsc. Res. Tech. 38:63–75, 1997.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Di Blasio, A.M., Carniti, C., Vigano, P., Florio, P., Petraglia, F. and Vignali, M.: Basic fibroblast growth factor messenger ribonucleic acid levels in human placentas from normal and pathological pregnancies. Mol. Hum. Reprod. 3:1119–1123, 1997.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Downs, K.M., Gifford, S., Blahnik, M. and Gardner, R.L.: Vascularization in the murine allantois occurs by vasculogenesis without accompanying erythropoiesis. Development 125:4507–4520, 1998.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dunk, C., Shams, M., Nijjar, S., Rhaman, M., Qiu, Y., Bussolati, B. and Ahmed, A.: Angiopoietin-1 and angiopoietin-2 activate trophoblast Tie-2 to promote growth and migration during placental development. Amer J Pathol 156:2185–2199, 2000.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ehrhardt, G., Gerl, D., Estel, C., Kadner, J. and Günther, M.: Morphologische Auswertbarkeit von in vitro gewonnenen Punktionszylindern der Plazenta. Zentralbl. Gynäkol. 96:705–711, 1974.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Enders, A.C. and King, B.F.: The cytology of Hofbauer cells. Anat. Rec. 167:231–252, 1970.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Epstein, A.C., Gleadle, J.M., McNeill, L.A., Hewitson, K.S., O’Rourke, J., Mole, D.R., Mukherji, M., Metzen, E., Wilson, M.I., Dhanda, A., Tian, Y.M., Masson, N., Hamilton, D.L., Jaakkola, P., Barstead, R., Hodgkin, J., Maxwell, P.H., Pugh, C.W., Schofield, C.J. and Ratcliffe, P.J.: C elegans EGL-9 and mammalian homologs define a family of dioxygenases that regulate HIF by prolyl hydroxylation. Cell 107:43–54, 2001.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, P.W., Wheeler, T., Anthony, F.W. and Osmond, C.: A longitudinal study of maternal serum vascular endothelial growth factor in early pregnancy. Human Reprod. 13:1057–1062, 1998.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Farley, A.E., Graham, C.H. and Smith, G.N.: Contractile properties of human placental anchoring villi. Amer. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 287:R680–R685, 2004.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Feneley, M.R. and Burton, G.J.: Villous composition and membrane thickness in the human placenta at term: a stereological study using unbiased estimators and optimal fixation techniques. Placenta 12:131–142, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ferriani, R.A., Ahmed, A., Sharkey, A.M. and Smith, S.K.: Colocalization of acidic and basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF) in human placenta and the cellular effects of bFGF in trophoblast cell line JEG-3. Growth Factors 10:259, 1994.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, D.A.: Maternal-fetal thyroid function in pregnancy. Clin. Perinatol. 10:615–626, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzpatrick, T.E. and Graham, C.H.: Stimulation of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 expression in immortalized human trophoblast cells cultured under low levels of oxygen. Exp. Cell Res. 245:155–162, 1998.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Folkman, J. and Haudenschild, C.: Angiogenesis in vitro. Nature (Lond.) 288:551–556, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Folkman, J. and Shing, Y.: Angiogenesis. J. Biol. Chem. 267:10931–10934, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fong, G.-H., Rossant, J., Gertsenstein, M. and Breitman, M.L.: Role of the Flt-1 receptor tyrosine kinase in regulating the assembly of vascular endothelium. Nature (Lond.) 376:66–70, 1995.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fong, G.-H., Zhang, L., Bryce, D.M. and Peng, J.: Increased hemangioblast commitment, not vascular disorganization, is the primary defect in flt-1 knock-out mice. Development 126:3015–3025, 1999.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fox, H.: The villous cytotrophoblast as an index of placental ischaemia. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Br. Commonw. 71:885–893, 1964.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fox, H.: Effect of hypoxia on trophoblast in organ culture. A morphologic and autoradiographic study. Amer. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 107:1058–1064, 1970.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fox, H.: Pathology of the Placenta. 1st Ed. Saunders, London, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox, H.: Pathology of the Placenta. 2nd Ed. Saunders, London, 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freese, U.E.: The fetal-maternal circulation of the placenta. I. Histomorphologic, plastoid injection, and X-ray cinematographic studies on human placentas. Amer. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 94:354–360, 1966.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Garfield, R.E., Yallampalli, C., Buhimschi, I. and Chwalisz, K.: Reversal of preeclampsia symptoms induced in rats by nitric oxide inhibition with L-arginine, steroid hormones and an endothelin antagonist. Presented at the Society for Gynecologic Investigation Meeting, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geier, G., Schuhmann, R. and Kraus, H.: Regional unterschiedliche Zellproliferation innerhalb der Plazentone reifer menschlicher Plazenten: autoradiographische Untersuchungen. Arch. Gynäkol. 218:31–37, 1975.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Genbacev, O., Joslin, R., Damsky, C.H., Polliotti, B.M. and Fisher, S.J.: Hypoxia alters early gestation human cytotrophoblast differentiation invasion in vitro and models the placental defects that occur in preeclampsia. J. Clin. Invest. 97:540–550, 1996.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Genbacev, O., Zhou, Y., Ludlow, J.W. and Fisher, S.J.: Regulation of human placental development by oxygen tension. Science. 277:1669–1672, 1997.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gerl, D., Eichhorn, H., Eichhorn, K.-H. and Franke, H.: Quantitative Messungen synzytialer Zellkernkonzentrationen der menschlichen Plazenta bei normalen und pathologischen Schwangerschaften. Zentralbl. Gynäkol. 95:263–266, 1973.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Geva, E., Ginzinger, D.G., Zaloudek, C.J., Moore, D.H., Byrne, A. and Jaffe, R.B.: Human placental vascular development: vasculogenic and angiogenic (branching and nonbranching) transformation is regulated by vascular endothelial growth factor-A, angiopoietin-1, and angiopoietin-2. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 87:4213–4224, 2002.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Graf, R., Langer, J.U., Schönfelder, G., Öney, T., Hartel-Schenk, S., Reutter, W. and Schmidt, H.H.H.W.: The extravascular contractile system in the human placenta. Morphological and immunocytochemical investigations. Anat. Embryol. 190:541–548, 1994.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Graf, R., Schönfelder, G., Mühlberger, M. and Gutsmann, M.: The perivascular contractile sheath of human placental stem villi; its isolation and characterization. Placenta 16:57–66, 1995.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Graf, R., Matejevic, D., Schuppan, D., Neudeck, H., Shakibaei, M. and Vetter, K.: Molecular anatomy of the perivascular sheath in human placental stem villi: the contractile apparatus and its association to the extracellular matrix. Cell Tissue Res. 290:601–607, 1997.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, C.H. and Lala, P.K.: Mechanism of control of trophoblast invasion in situ. J. Cell Physiol. 148:228–234, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, C. H. and McCrae, K. R. Hypoxia stimulates expression of the urokinase receptor and invasion of extracellular matrix by trophoblast cells through a heme protein-dependent pathway. Placenta 18:A24, 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  • Habashi, S., Burton, G.J. and Steven, D.H.: Morphological study of the fetal vasculature of the human placenta: scanning electron microscopy of corrosion casts. Placenta 4:41–56, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hanahan, D.: Signaling vascular morphogenesis and maintenance. Science 277:48–50, 1997.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • He, Y., Smith, S.K., Day, K.A., Clark, D.E., Licence, D.R. and Charnock-Jones, D.S.: Alternative splicing of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-R1 (FLT-1) pre-mRNA is important for the regulation of VEGF activity. Mol. Endocrinol. 13:537–545, 1999.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Helske, S., Vuorela, P., Carpen, O., Hornig, C., Weich, H. and Halmesmaki, E.: Expression of vascular endothelial growth factor receptors 1, 2 and 3 in placentas from normal and complicated pregnancies. Mol. Hum. Reprod. 7:205–210, 2001.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hershman, J.M.: Hyperthyroidism induced by trophoblastic thyrotropin. Mayo Clin. Proc. 47:913–918, 1972.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hertig, A.T.: Angiogenesis in the early human chorion and in the primary placenta of the macaque monkey. Contrib. Embryol. Carnegie Inst. 25:37–81, 1935.

    Google Scholar 

  • Highison, G.J. and Tibbitts, F.D.: Ultrasonic microdissection of immature intermediate human placental villi as studied by scanning electron microscopy. Scanning Electron Microsc. 2:679–685, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hiratsuka, S., Minowa, O., Kuno, J., Noda, T. and Shibuya, M.: Flt-1 lacking the tyrosine kinase domain is sufficient for normal development and angiogenesis in mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:9349–9354, 1998.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hitschold, T., Müntefering, H., Ulrich, S. and Berle, P.: Does extremely low fetoplacental impedance as estimated by umbilical artery Doppler velocimetry also indicate fetuses at risk? Ultrasound Gynecol. 8:39A, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holmgren, L., Glaser, A., Pfeifer-Ohlsson, N.S. and Ohlsson, R.: Angiogenesis during human extraembryonic development involves the spatiotemporal control of PDGF ligand and receptor gene expression. Development (Camb.) 113:749–754, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hölzl, M., Lüthje, D. and Seck-Ebersbach, K.: Placentaveränderungen bei EPH-Gestose. Arch. Gynäkol. 217:315–334, 1974.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hörmann, G.: Lebenskurven normaler und entwicklungsfähiger Chorionzotten; Ergebnisse systematischer Zottenmessungen. Arch. Gynäkol. 181:29–43, 1951.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hörmann, G.: Ein Beitrag zur funktionellen Morphologie der menschlichen Placenta. Arch. Gynäkol. 184:109–123, 1953.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hörmann, G.: Versuch einer Systematik plazentarer Entwicklungsstörungen. Geburtsh. Frauenheilkd. 18:345–349, 1958a.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hörmann, G.: Zur Systematik einer Pathologie der menschlichen Placenta. Arch. Gynäkol. 191:297–344, 1958b.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hornig, C., Barleon, B., Ahmad, S., Vuorela, P., Ahmed, A. and Weich, H.A.: Release and complex formation of soluble VEGFR-1 from endothelial cells and biological fluids. Lab. Invest. 80:443–454, 2000.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hugentobler, W., Binkert, F., Haenel, A.F. and Schaetti, D.: Die Chorionzotten-(Plazenta-) Biopsie im II. und III. Trimenon: Neue Perspektiven der Pränataldiagnostik. Geburtsh. Frauenheilkd. 47:729–732, 1987.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hung, T.H., Skepper, J.N. and Burton, G.J.: In vitro ischemia-reperfusion injury in term human placenta as a model for oxidative stress in pathological pregnancies. Amer. J. Pathol. 159:1031–1043, 2001.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hung, T.H., Skepper, J.N., Charnock-Jones, D.S. and Burton, G.J.: Hypoxia-reoxygenation: a potent inducer of apoptotic changes in the human placenta and possible etiological factor in preeclampsia. Circ. Res. 90:1274–1281, 2002a.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hung, T., Charnock-Jones, D. S. and Burton, G. J. Hypoxia/reoxygenation is a potent stimulus for placental production of tumour necrosis factor-alpha. Placenta 23:Suppl. A, A.9. 2002b.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunt, J.S.: Macrophages in human uteroplacental tissues: a review. Amer. J. Reprod. Immunol. 21:119–122, 1989.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, M.R., Mayhew, T.M. and Haas, J.D.: Morphometric studies on villi in human term placentae and the effects of altitude, ethnic grouping and sex of newborn. Placenta 8:487–495, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, M.R., Carney, E.W., Lye, S.J. and Ritchie, J.W.K. Localization of two angiogenic growth factors (PDECGF and VEGF) in human placentae throughout gestation. Placenta 15:341–353, 1994.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jauniaux, E., Watson, A. and Burton, G.: Evaluation of respiratory gases and acid-base gradients in human fetal fluids and uteroplacental tissue between 7 and 16 weeks gestation. Amer. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 184:998–1003, 2001.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jirkovska, M., Kubinova, L., Krekule, I. and Hach, P.: Spatial arrangement of fetal placental capillaries in terminal villi: a study using confocal microscopy. Anat. Embryol. 197:263–272, 1998.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jokhi, P., Chumbley, G., King, A., Gardner, L. and Loke, W.: Expression of the colony stimulating factor-1 receptor by cells at the uteroplacental interface. Placenta 13:A29, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, C.J.P., Hartmann, M., Blaschitz, A. and Desoye, G.: Ultrastructural localization of insulin receptors in human placenta. Amer. J. Reprod. Immunol. 30:136–145, 1993.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kadyrov, M.K., Kosanke, G., Kingdom, J.C.P. and Kaufmann, P. Increased fetoplacental angiogenesis during first trimester in anaemic women. Lancet 352:1747–1749, 1998.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaneoka, T., Taguchi, S., Shimizu, H. and Shirakawa, K.: Prenatal diagnosis and treatment of intrauterine growth retardation. J. Perinat. Med. 11:204–212, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Karimu, A.L. and Burton, G.J.: The effects of maternal vascular pressure on the dimensions of the placental capillaries. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 101:57–63, 1994.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, P.: Entwicklung der Plazenta. In, Die Plazenta des Menschen. V. Becker, T.H. Schiebler and F. Kubli, eds., pp. 13–50. Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart, 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, P.: Development and differentiation of the human placental villous tree. Bibl. Anat. 22:29–39, 1982.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, P.: Basic morphology of the fetal and maternal circuits in the human placenta. Contrib. Gynecol. Obstet. 13:5–17, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, P.: Capybara. In: Kurt Benirschke: Comparative Placentation. http://medicine.ucsd.edu/cpa/indxfs.html 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, P. and Davidoff, M.: The guinea pig placenta. Adv. Anat. Embryol. Cell Biol. 53:1–91, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, P. and Kingdom, J.C.P.: Development of the vascular system in the placenta. In, Morphogenesis of Endothelium. W. Risau and G. M. Rubanyi, pp 255–275. Amsterdam, Harwood Academic Publishers. 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, P. and Scheffen, I.: Placental development. In, Neonatal and Fetal Medicine-Physiology and Pathophysiology, Vol. I. R.A. Polin and W.W. Fox, eds., pp. 47–55. Saunders, Orlando, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, P., Schiebler, T.H., Ciobotaru, C. and Stark, J.: Enzymhistochemische Untersuchungen an reifen menschlichen Placentazotten. II. Zur Gliederung des Syncytiotrophoblasten. Histochemistry 40:191–207, 1974.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, P., Gentzen, D.M. and Davidoff, M.: Die Ultrastruktur von Langhanszellen in pathologischen menschlichen Placenten. Arch. Gynaekol 222:319–332, 1977a.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, P., Stark, J. and Stegner, H.-E.: The villous stroma of the human placenta. I. The ultrastructure of fixed connective tissue cells. Cell Tissue Res. 177:105–121, 1977b.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, P., Sen, D.K. and Schweikhart, G.: Classification of human placental villi. I. Histology and scanning electron microscopy. Cell Tissue Res. 200:409–423, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, P., Nagl, W. and Fuhrmann, B.: Die funktionelle Bedeutung der Langhanszellen der menschlichen Plazenta. Ann. Anat. 77:435–436, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, P., Bruns, U., Leiser, R., Luckhardt, M. and Winterhager, E.: The fetal vascularization of term human placental villi. II. Intermediate and terminal villi. Anat. Embryol. (Berl.) 173:203–214, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, P., Luckhardt, M., Schweikhart, G. and Cantle, S.J.: Cross-sectional features and three-dimensional structure of human placental villi. Placenta 8:235–247, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, P., Luckhardt, M. and Leiser, R.: Three-dimensional representation of the fetal vessel system in the human placenta. Trophoblast Res. 3:113–137, 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, P., Mayhew, T.M. and Charnock-Jones, D.S.: Aspects of human fetoplacental vasculogenesis and angiogenesis. II. Changes during normal pregnancy. Placenta 25:114–126, 2004.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, R.L. and Darne, J.: The role of hCG in regulation of the thyroid gland in normal and abnormal pregnancy. Obstet. Gynecol. 78:298–307, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khaliq, A., Li, X.F., Shams, M., Sisi, P., Acevedo, C.A., Whittle, M.J., Weich, H. and Ahmed, A.: Localisation of placenta growth factor PlGF in human term placenta. Growth Factors 13:243–250, 1996.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khaliq, A., Dunk, C., Jiang, J., Shams, M., Li, X.F., Acevedo, C., Weich, H., Whittle, M. and Ahmed, A.: Hypoxia down-regulates placenta growth factor, whereas fetal growth restriction up-regulates placenta growth factor expression: molecular evidence for “placental hyperoxia” in intrauterine growth restriction. Lab. Invest. 79:151–170, 1999.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kilby, M.D., Afford, S., Li, X.F., Strain, A.J., Ahmed, A. and Whittle, M.J.: Localisation of hepatocyte growth factor and its receptor (c-met) protein and mRNA in human term placenta. Growth Factors 13:133–139, 1996.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • King, B.F.: Ultrastructural differentiation of stromal and vascular components in early macaque placental villi. Amer. J. Anat. 178:30–44, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kingdom, J.C.P. and Kaufmann, P.: Oxygen and placental villous development: origins of fetal hypoxia. Placenta 18:613–621, 1997.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kingdom, J.C.P., Burrell, S.J. and Kaufmann, P.: Pathology and clinical implications of abnormal umbilical artery Doppler waveforms. Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol. 9:271–286, 1997a.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kingdom, J.C.P., Macara, L.M., Krebs, C., Leiser, R. and Kaufmann, P.: Pathological basis for abnormal umbilical artery Doppler waveforms in pregnancies complicated by intrauterine growth restriction. Trophoblast Res. 10:291–309, 1997b.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kiserud, T., Hellevik, L.R., Eik-Nes, S.H., Angelsen, B.A. and Blaas, H.G.: Estimation of the pressure gradient across the fetal ductus venosus based on Doppler velocimetry. Ultrasound Med. Biol. 20:225–232, 1994.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Knoth, M.: Ultrastructure of chorionic villi from a four-somite human embryo. J. Ultrastruct. Res. 25:423–440, 1968.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kohnen, G., Kosanke, G., Korr, H. and Kaufmann, P.: Comparison of various proliferation markers applied to human placental tissue. Placenta 14:A38, 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohnen, G., Castellucci, M., Hsi, B.L., Yeh, C.J.G. and Kaufmann, P.: The monoclonal antibody GB42-a useful marker for the differentiation of myofibroblasts. Cell Tissue Res. 281:231–242, 1995.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kohnen, G., Kertschanska, S., Demir, R. and Kaufmann, P.: Placental villous stroma as a model system for myofibroblast differentiation. Histochem. Cell Biol. 101:415–429, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  • Konje, J.C., Huppertz, B., Bell, S.C., Taylor, D. and Kaufmann, P.: 3-dimensional colour power angiography for staging human placental development. Lancet 362:1199–2101, 2003.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kosanke, G., Castellucci, M., Kaufmann, P. and Mironov, V.A.: Branching patterns of human placental villous trees: perspectives of topological analysis. Placenta 14:591–604, 1993.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kosanke, G., Kadyrov, M., Korr, H. and Kaufmann, P.: Maternal anemia results in increased proliferation in human placental villi. Trophoblast Res. 11:339–357, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krantz, K.E. and Parker, J.C.: Contractile properties of the smooth muscle in the human placenta. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 6:26–38, 1963.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krebs, C., Macara, L.M., Leiser, R., Bowman, A.W., Greer, I.A. and Kingdom, J.C.P.: Intrauterine growth restriction with absent end-diastolic flow velocity in the umbilical artery is associated with maldevelopment of the placental terminal villous tree. Amer. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 175:1534–1542, 1996.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krebs, C., Longo, L.D. and Leiser, R.: Term ovine placental vasculature: comparison of sea level and high altitude conditions by corrosion cast and histomorphometry. Placenta 18:43–51, 1997.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar, R. and Chaudhuri, B.N.: Altered maternal thyroid function: fetal and neonatal development of rat. Indian J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 33:233–238, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kumazaki, K., Nakayama, M., Suehara, N. and Wada, Y.: Expression of vascular endothelial growth factor, placental growth factor, and their receptors Flt-1 and KDR in human placenta under pathologic conditions. Human Pathol. 33:1069–1077, 2002.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kupferminc, M.J., Daniel, Y., Englender, T., Baram, A., Many, A., Jaffa, A.J., Gull, I. and Lessing, J.B.: Vascular endothelial growth factor is increased in patients with preeclampsia. Amer. J. Reprod. Immunol. 38:302–306, 1997.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kurjak, A. and Pal, A.: The effect of Gestanon on the fetal and uteroplacental blood flow. Acta Med. Jugosl. 40:121–131, 1986.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lang, I., Pabst, M.A., Hiden, U., Blaschitz, A., Dohr, G., Hahn, T. and Desoye, G: Heterogeneity of microvascular endothelial cells isolated from human term placenta and macrovascular umbilical vein endothelial cells. Eur. J. Cell Biol. 82:163–173, 2003.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Larsen, L.G., Clausen, H.V., Andersen, B. and Graem, N.: A stereologic study of postmature placentas fixed by dual perfusion. Amer. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 172:500–507, 1995.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lehmann, W.D., Schuhmann, R. and Kraus, H.: Regionally different steroid biosynthesis within materno-fetal circulation units (placentones) of mature human placentas. J. Perinat. Med. 1:198–204, 1973.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leiser, R.: Microvascularisation der Ziegenplazenta dargestellt mit rasterelektronisch untersuchten Gefäßausgüssen. Schweiz. Arch. Tierheilkd. 129:59–74, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leiser, R., Luckhardt, M., Kaufmann, P., Winterhager, E. and Bruns, U.: The fetal vascularisation of term human placental villi. I. Peripheral stem villi. Anat. Embryol. 173:71–80, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leiser, R., Kosanke, G. and Kaufmann, P.: Human placental vascularization. In, Placenta: Basic Research for Clinical Application. H. Soma, ed., pp. 32–45. Karger, Basel, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lemtis, H.: Über die Architektonik des Zottengefäßapparates der menschlichen Plazenta. Anat. Anz. 102:106–133, 1955.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lemtis, H.: New insights into the maternal circulatory system of the human placenta. In, The Foetoplacental Unit. A. Pecile and D. Finzi, eds. Excerpta Medica, Amsterdam, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, X.F., Charnock-Jones, D.S., Zhang, E., Hiby, S., Malik, S., Day, K., Licence, D., Bowen, J.M., Gardner, L., King, A., Loke, Y. W. and Smith, S.K.: Angiogenic growth factor messenger ribonucleic acids in uterine natural killer cells. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 86:1823–1834, 2001.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Luckett, W.P.: Origin and differentiation of the yolk sac and extraembryonic mesoderm in presomite human and rhesus monkey embryos. Amer. J. Anat. 152:59–97, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Luttun, A., Tjwa, M., Moons, L., Wu, Y., Angelillo-Scherrer, A., Liao, F., Nagy, J.A., Hooper, A., Priller, J., De Klerck, B., Compernolle, V., Daci, E., Bohlen, P., Dewerchin, M., Herbert, J.M., Fava, R., Matthys, P., Carmeliet, G., Collen, D., Dvorak, H.F., Hicklin, D.J. and Carmeliet, P.: Revascularization of ischemic tissues by PlGF treatment, and inhibition of tumor angiogenesis, arthritis and atherosclerosis by anti-Flt1. Nature Med. 8:831–840, 2002.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lyall, F., Greer, I.A., Boswell, F. and Fleming, R.: Suppression of serum vascular endothelial growth factor immunoreactivity in normal pregnancy and in pre-eclampsia. Br. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 104:223–228, 1997.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lysiak, J., Khoo, N., Conelly, I., Stettler-Stevenson, W. and Lala, P.: Role of transforming growth factor (TGF) and epidermal growth factor (EGF) on proliferation, invasion, and hCG production by normal and malignant trophoblast. Placenta 13:A41, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macara, L., Kingdom, J.C.P., Kaufmann, P., Kohnen, G., Hair, J., More, I.A.R., Lyall, F. and Greer, I.A.: Structural analysis of placental terminal villi from growth-restricted pregnancies with abnormal umbilical artery Doppler waveforms. Placenta 17:37–48, 1996.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maruo, T., Matsuo, H. and Mochizuki, M.: Thyroid hormone as a biological amplifier of differentiated trophoblast function in early pregnancy. Acta Endocrinol. (Copenh.) 125:58–66, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marzolf, G., Lobstein, J.F., Dillmann, J.C., Spizzo, M., Eberst, B. and Gandar, R.: Double blind comparison of the effects of Gestanon versus placebo in intra-uterine growth retardation. Presented at the 4th Asia Oceanic Congress on Perinatology, Tokyo, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matsuo, H., Maruo, T., Murata, K. and Mochizuki, M.: Human early placental trophoblasts produce an epidermal growth factor-like substance in synergy with thyroid hormone. Acta Endocrinol. (Copenh.) 128:225–229, 1993.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mayhew, T.M.: Fetoplacental angiogenesis during gestation is biphasic, longitudinal and occurs by proliferation and remodeling of vascular endothelial cells. Placenta 23:742–750, 2002.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayhew, T.M., Charnock-Jones, D.S. and Kaufmann, P.: Aspects of human fetoplacental vasculogenesis and angiogenesis. III. Changes in complicated pregnancies. Placenta 25:127–139, 2004.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moe, N.: Mitotic activity in the syncytiotrophoblast of the human chorionic villi. Amer. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 110:431, 1971.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moll, W.: Physiologie der maternen plazentaren Durchblutung. In, Die Plazenta des Menschen. V. Becker, T.H. Schiebler and F. Kubli, eds., pp. 172–194. Thieme, Stuttgart, 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  • Montgomery, D. and Young, M.: The uptake of naturally occurring amino acids by the plasma membrane of the human placenta. Placenta 3:13–20, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mossman, H.W.: The rabbit placenta and the problem of placental transmission. Amer. J. Anat. 37:433–497, 1926.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mossman, H.W.: The principal interchange vessels of the chorioallantoic placenta of mammals. In, Organogenesis. R.L. DeHann and H. Ursprung, eds., pp. 771–786. Holt Rinehart & Winston, New York, 1965.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mühlhauser, J., Crescimanno, C., Kaufmann, P., Höfler, H., Zaccheo, D. and Castellucci, M.: Differentiation and proliferation patterns in human trophoblast revealed by c-erbB-2 oncogene product and EGF-R. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 41:165–173, 1993.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Myers, R.E. and Panigel, M.: Experimental placental detachment in the rhesus monkey: changes in villous ultrastructure. J. Med. Primatol. 2:170–189, 1973.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naeye, R.L., Maisels, J., Lorenz, R.P. and Botti, J.J.: The clinical significance of placental villous edema. Pediatrics 71:588–594, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nikolov, S.D. and Schiebler, T.H.: Über das fetale Gefäßsystem der reifen menschlichen Plazenta. Z. Zellforsch. 139:333–350, 1973.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nikolov, S.D. and Schiebler, T.H.: Über Endothelzellen in Zottengefäßen der reifen menschlichen Plazenta. Acta Anat. (Basel) 110:338–344, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Odorisio, T., Schietroma, C., Zaccaria, M.L., Cianfarani, F., Tiveron, C., Tatangelo, L., Failla, C.M. and Zambruno, G.: Mice overexpressing placenta growth factor exhibit increased vascularization and vessel permeability. J. Cell Sci. 115:2559–2567, 2002.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ogawa, S., Leavy, J., Clauss, M., Koga, S., Shreeniwas, R., Joseph-Silverstein, J., Furie, M. and Stern, D.: Modulation of endothelial cell (EC) function in hypoxia: alterations in cell growth and the response to monocyte-derived mitogenic factors. J. Cell. Biochem. Suppl. 15F:213, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Neill, J.E.G.: Vascularizacao da placenta humana. Thesis, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ong, P.J. and Burton, G.J.: Thinning of the placental villous membrane during maintenance in hypoxic organ culture: structural adaptation or syncytial degeneration? Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 39:103–110, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Panigel, M. and Myers, R.E.: The effect of fetectomy and ligature of the interplacental fetal vessels on the ultrastructure of placental villosities in Macaca mulatta. C.R. Acad. Sci. Hebd. Seances Acad. Sci. Ser. D 272:315–318, 1971.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Panigel, M. and Myers, R.E.: Histological and ultrastructural changes in rhesus monkey placenta following interruption of fetal placental circulation by fetectomy or interplacental umbilical vessel ligation. Acta Anat. (Basel) 81:481–506, 1972.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Panigel, M. and Pascaud, M.: Les orifices artériels d’entrée du sang maternel dans la chambre intervilleuse du placenta humain. Bull. Assoc. Anat. 142:1287–1298, 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Papierowski, Z.: Effects of selected progestogens used for the protection of high-risk pregnancy on the clinical course, morphological changes and proliferative activity of the trophoblast. Ginekol. Pol. 52:298–303, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Paprocki, M.: Morphologie und Morphometrie der Zottengefässe der reifen menschlichen Plazenta nach vorzeitigem Blasensprung. Med. Thesis, University of Technology Aachen, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Penfold, P., Wootton, R. and Hytten, P.E.: Studies of a single placental cotyledon in vitro. III. The dimensions of the villous capillaries. Placenta 2:161–168, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pilz, I., Schweikhart, G. and Kaufmann, P.: Zur Abgrenzung normaler, artefizieller und pathologischer Strukturen in reifen menschlichen Plazentazotten. III. Morphometrische Untersuchungen bei Rh-Inkompatibilität. Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. 229:137–154, 1980.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Piotrowicz, B., Niebroj, T.K. and Sieron, G.: The morphology and histochemistry of the full term placenta in anaemic patients. Folia Histochem. Cytochem. 7:436–444, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prager, D., Weber, M.M. and Herman-Bonert, V.: Placental growth factors and releasing/inhibiting peptides. Semin. Reprod. Endocrinol. 10:83–94, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pugh, C.W. and Ratcliffe, P.J.: Regulation of angiogenesis by hypoxia: role of the HIF system. Nature Med. 9:677–684, 2003.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rafii, S., Meeus, S., Dias, S., Hattori, K., Heissig, B., Shmelkov, S., Rafii, D. and Lyden, D.: Contribution of marrow-derived progenitors to vascular and cardiac regeneration. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 13:61–67, 2002.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ramsey, E.M., Corner, G.W. and Donner, M.W.: Serial and cineradioangiographic visualization of maternal circulation in the primate (hemochorial) placenta. Amer. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 86:213–225, 1963.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rao, C.V., Ramani, N., Chegini, N., Stadig, B.K., Carman, F.R., Jr., Woost, P.G., Schultz, G.S. and Cook, C.L.: Topography of human placental receptors for epidermal growth factor. J. Biol. Chem. 260:1705–1710, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reshetnikova, O.S., Burton, G.J. and Milovanov, A.P.: The effects of hypobaric hypoxia on the terminal villi of the human placenta. J. Physiol. 459:308P, 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reuvekamp, A., Velsing-Aarts, F.V., Poulina, I.E., Capello, J.J. and Duits, A.J.: Selective deficit of angiogenic growth factors characterises pregnancies complicated by pre-eclampsia. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 106:1019–1022, 1999.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, L.P., Killilea, S.D. and Redmer, D.A.: Angiogenesis in the female reproductive system. FASEB J. 6:886–892, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rhodin, J.A.G.: The ultrastructure of mammalian arterioles and precapillary sphincters. J. Ultrastruct. Res. 18:181–223, 1967.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rhodin, J.A.G.: Ultrastructure of mammalian venous capillaries, venules and small collecting veins. J. Ultrastruct. Res. 25:452–500, 1968.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Risau, W.: Mechanisms of angiogenesis. Nature 386:671–674, 1997.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Risau, W. and Flamme, I.: Vasculogenesis. Ann. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 11:73–91, 1995.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rodesch, F., Simon, P., Donner, C. and Jauniaux, E.: Oxygen measurements in endometrial and trophoblastic tissues during early pregnancy. Obstet. Gynecol. 80:283–285, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rossi, P., Karsenty, G., Roberts, A.B., Roche, N.S., Sporn, M.B. and De Crombrugghe, B.: A nuclear factor 1 binding site mediates the transcriptional activation of a type I collagen promoter by transforming growth factor-β. Cell 52:405–414, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Salvatore, C.A.: The placenta in acute toxemia. Amer. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 102:347–352, 1968.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scheffen, I., Kaufmann, P., Philippens, L., Leiser, R., Geisen, C. and Mottaghy, K.: Alterations of the fetal capillary bed in the guinea pig placenta following long-term hypoxia. In, Oxygen Transfer to Tissue, XII. J. Piiper, T.K. Goldstick and D. Meyer, eds., pp. 779–790. Plenum Press, New York, 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schiebler, T.H. and Kaufmann, P.: Reife Plazenta. In, Die Plazenta des Menschen. V. Becker, T.H. Schiebler and F. Kubli, eds., pp. 51–111. Thieme, Stuttgart, 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmid-Schönbein, H.: Conceptional proposition for a specific microcirculatory problem: maternal blood flow in hemochorial multivillous placentae as percolation of a “porous medium.” Trophoblast Res. 3:17–38, 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, J.A., Mizel, S.B., Cohen, D. and Green, I.: Interleukin 1: a potential regulator of fibroblast proliferation. J. Immunol. 128:2177–2182, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schmon, B., Hartmann, M., Jones, C.J. and Desoye, G.: Insulin and glucose do not affect the glycogen content in isolated and cultured trophoblast cells of human term placenta. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 73:888–893, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schuhmann, R.: Plazenton: Begriff, Entstehung, funktionelle Anatomie. In, Die Plazenta des Menschen. V. Becker, T.H. Schiebler and F. Kubli, eds., pp. 199–207. Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart, 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schuhmann, R.A.: Placentone structure of the human placenta. Bibl. Anat. 22:46–57, 1982.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schuhmann, R. and Wehler, V.: Histologische Unterschiede an Plazentazotten innerhalb der materno-fetalen Strömungseinheit. Ein Beitrag zur funktionellen Morphologie der Plazenta. Arch. Gynäkol. 210:425–439, 1971.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schuhmann, R., Kraus, H., Borst, R. and Geier, G.: Regional unterschiedliche Enzymaktivität innerhalb der Placentone reifer menschlicher Placenten. Histochemische und biochemische Untersuchungen. Arch. Gynäkol. 220:209–226, 1976.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schweikhart, G. and Kaufmann, P.: Zur Abgrenzung normaler, artefizieller und pathologischer Strukturen in reifen menschlichen Plazentazotten. I. Ultrastruktur des Syncytiotrophoblasten. Arch. Gynäkol. 222:213–230, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, W.A. and Cohn, Z.A.: Secretory products of mononuclear phagocytes. In, Pathobiology of the Endothelial Cell. H.L. Nossel and H.J. Vogel, eds., pp. 240–258. Raven Press, New York, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  • Semenza, G.L.: HIF-1, O2 and the 3 PHDs: How animal cells signal hypoxia to the nucleus. Cell 107:1–3, 2001.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sen, D.K., Kaufmann, P. and Schweikhart, G.: Classification of human placental villi. II. Morphometry. Cell Tissue Res. 200:425–434, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shalaby, F., Rossant, J., Yamaguchi, T.P., Gertsenstein, M., Wu, X.-F., Breitman, M. and Schuh, A.C.: Failure of blood island formation and vasculogenesis in Flk-1-deficient mice. Nature (Lond.) 376:62–66, 1995.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shams, M. and Ahmed, A.: Localization of mRNA for basic fibroblast growth factor in human placenta. Growth Factors 11:105–111, 1994.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sharkey, A.M., Charnock-Jones, D.S., Boocock, C.A., Brown, K.D. and Smith, S.K.: Expression of mRNA for vascular endothelial growth factor in human placenta. J. Reprod. Fertil. 99:609–615, 1993.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sharkey, A.M., Cooper, J.C., Balmforth, J.R., McLaren, J., Clark, D.E., Charnock-Jones, D.S., Morris, N.H. and Smith, S.K.: Maternal plasma levels of vascular endothelial growth factor in normotensive pregnancies and in pregnancies complicated by pre-eclampsia. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 26:1182–1185, 1996.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shiraishi, S., Nakagawa, K., Kinukawa, N., Nakano, H. and Sueishi, K.: Immunohistochemical localization of vascular endothelial growth factor in the human placenta. Placenta 17:111–121, 1996.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shore, V.H., Wang, T.H., Wang, C.L., Torry, R.J., Caudle, M.R. and Torry, D.S.: Vascular endothelial growth factor, placenta growth factor and their receptors in isolated human trophoblast. Placenta 18:657–665, 1997.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shorter, S., Clover, L. and Starkey, P.: Evidence for both an autocrine and paracrine role for the colony-stimulating factors in regulating placental growth and development. Placenta 13:A58, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shreeniwas, R., Ogawa, S., Cozzolino, F., Torcia, G., Braunstein, N., Butura, C., Brett, J., Lieberman, H.B., Furie, M.B. and Joseph-Silverstein, J.: Macrovascular and microvascular endothelium during long-term hypoxia: alterations in cell growth, monolayer permeability, and cell surface coagulant properties. J. Cell. Physiol. 146:8–17, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sibley, C.P., Pardi, G., Cetin, I., Todros, T., Piccoli, E., Kaufmann, P., Huppertz, B., Bulfamente, G., Cribiu, F.M., Ayuk, P., Glazier, J. and Radaelli, T.: Pathogenesis of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR)—conclusions derived from a European Union Biomed 2 Concerted Action Project ‘Importance of Oxygen Supply in Intrauterine Growth Restricted Pregnancies’—A Workshop Report. Placenta 16:S75–S79, 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  • Somerset, D.A., Li, X.F., Afford, S., Strain, A., Ahmed, A., Sangha, R.K., Whittle, M.J. and Kilby, M.D.: Ontogeny of hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) and its receptor (c-met) in human placenta—reduced HGF expression in intrauterine growth restriction. Amer. J. Pathol. 153:1139–1147, 1998.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Soothill, P.W., Nicolaides, K.H., Rodeck, C.H. and Campbell, S.: Effects of gestational age on fetal and intervillous blood gas and acid-base values in human pregnancy. Fetal Therapy 1:168–175, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strauss, D.S.: Growth-stimulatory actions of insulin in vitro and in vivo. Endocr. Rev. 5:356–369, 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  • Takemura, R. and Werb, Z.: Secretory products of macrophages and their physiological functions. Amer. J. Physiol. 246:C1–C9, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tedde, G. and Tedde-Piras, A.: Mitotic index of the Langhans’ cells in the normal human placenta from the early stages of pregnancy to the term. Acta Anat. (Basel) 100:114–119, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thiriot, M. and Panigel, M.: Microcirculation. La microvascularisation des villosites placentaires humaines. C.R. Acad. Sci. D 287:709–712, 1978.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thorpe Beeston, J.G., Nicolaides, K.H., Snijders, R.J., Felton, C.V. and McGregor, A.M.: Thyroid function in small for gestational age fetuses. Obstet. Gynecol. 77:701–706, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Todros, T., Sciarrone, A., Piccoli, E., Guiot, C., Kaufmann, P., and Kingdom, J.: Umbilical Doppler waveforms and placental villous angiogenesis in pregnancies complicated by fetal growth restriction. Obstet. Gynecol. 93:499–503, 1999.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tominaga, T. and Page, E.W.: Accommodation of the human placenta to hypoxia. Amer. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 94:679–691, 1966.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Torry, D.S., Wang, H.S., Wang, T.H., Caudle, M.R. and Torry, R.J.: Preeclampsia is associated with reduced serum levels of placenta growth factor. Amer. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 179:1539–1544, 1998.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Uehara, Y., Minowa, O., Mori, C., Shiota, K., Kuno, J., Noda, T. and Kitamura, N.: Placental defect and embryonic lethality in mice lacking hepatocyte growth factor/scatter factor. Nature 373:702–705, 1995.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Voigt, S., Kaufmann, P. and Schweikhart, G.: Zur Abgrenzung normaler, artefizieller und pathologischer Strukturen in reifen menschlichen Plazentazotten. II. Morphometrische Untersuchungen zum Einfluss des Fixationsmodus. Arch. Gynäkol. 226:347–362, 1978.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vuckovic, M., Ponting, J., Terman, B.I., Niketic, V., Seif, M.W. and Kumar, S.: Expression of the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor, KDR, in human placenta. J. Anat. 188:361–366, 1996.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vuorela, P., Hatva, E., Lymboussaki, A., Kaipainen, A., Joukov, V. and Persico, M.G.: Expression of vascular endothelial growth factor and placenta growth factor in human placenta. Biol. Reprod. 56:489–494, 1997.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wallenburg, H.C.S., Hutchinson, D.L., Schuler, H.M., Stolte, L.A.M. and Janssens, J.: The pathogenesis of placental infarction. II. An experimental study in the rhesus monkey. Amer. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 116:841–846, 1973.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Werb, Z.: How the macrophage regulates its extracellular environment. Amer. J. Anat. 166:237–256, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Werner, C. and Schneiderhan, W.: Plazentamorphologie und Plazentafunktion in Abhängigkeit von der diabetischen Stoffwechselführung. Geburtsh. Frauenheilkd. 32:959–966, 1972.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler, T., Elcock, C.L. and Anthony, F.W.: Angiogenesis and the placental environment. Placenta 16:289–296, 1995.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Widmaier, G.: Zur Ultrastruktur menschlicher Placentazotten beim Diabetes mellitus. Arch. Gynäkol. 208:396–409, 1970.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wigglesworth, J.S.: Vascular organization of the human placenta. Nature 216:1120–1121, 1967.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkin, P.: Pathologie du Placenta. Masson, Paris, 1965.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilting, J., Birkenhäger, R., Martiny-Baron, G., Marmé, D., Christ, B., Eichmann, A. and Weich, H.A.: Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and placenta growth factor (PIGF): homologous factors specifically affecting endothelial cells. Ann. Anat. 178:331A, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilting, J., Birkenhäger, R., Eichmann, A., Kurs, H., Martiny-Baron, G., Marme, D., McCarthy, J.E.G., Christ, B. and Weich, H.A.: VEGF(121) induces proliferation of vascular endothelial cells and expression of flk-1 without affecting lymphatic vessels of the chorioallantoic membrane. Dev. Biol. 176:76–85, 1996.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wulff, C., Wilson, H., Dickson, S.E., Wiegand, S.J. and Fraser, H.M.: Hemochorial placentation in the primate: expression of vascular endothelial growth factor, angiopoietins, and their receptors throughout pregnancy. Biol. Reprod. 66:802–812, 2002.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yallampalli, C. and Garfield, R.E.: Inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis in rats during pregnancy produces signs similar to those of preeclampsia. Amer. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 169:1316–1320, 1993.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zeek, P.M. and Assali, N.S.: Vascular changes in the deciduas associated with eclamptogenic toxemia of pregnancy. Amer. J. Clin. Pathol. 20:1099–1109, 1950.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, E.G., Smith, S.K., Baker P.N. and Charnock-Jones, D.S.: The regulation and localization of angiopoietin-1,-2, and their receptor Tie-2 in normal and pathologic human placentae. Mol. Med. 7:624–635, 2001.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, Y., Genbacev, O., Damsky, C.H. and Fisher, S.J.: Oxygen regulates human cytotrophoblast differentiation and invasion: implications for endovascular invasion in normal pregnancy and in pre-eclampsia. J. Reprod. Immunol. 39:197–213, 1998.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, Y., McMaster, M., Woo, K., Janatpour, M., Perry, J., Karpanen, T., Alitalo, K., Damsky, C. and Fisher, S.J.: Vascular endothelial growth factor ligands and receptors that regulate cytotrophoblast survival are dysregulated in severe preeclampsia and hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelets syndrome. Amer. J. Pathol. 160:1405–1423, 2002.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ziche, M., Maglione, D., Ribatti, D., Morbidelli, L., Lago, C.T., Battisti, M., Paoletti, I., Barra, A., Tucci, M., Parise, G., Vincenti, V., Granger, H.J., Viglietto, G. and Persico, M.G.: Placenta growth factor-1 is chemotactic, mitogenic, and angiogenic. Lab. Invest. 76:517–531, 1997.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2006 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

(2006). Architecture of Normal Villous Trees. In: Pathology of the Human Placenta. Springer, New York, NY . https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-26742-5_7

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-26742-5_7

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-387-26738-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-0-387-26742-5

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics