This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Naval Research Laboratory test capabilities include obtaining compartment temperature profiles, obscuration data, thermal radiation measurements, heat release rates, and gas samples. However, published data from Navy testing is sparse. See Williams F, Winchester C, “Lithium Battery Shipboard Safety,” April 24, 2010.
- 2.
Mikolajczak CJ, Moore D, “A study of passenger aircraft cargo hold environments,” Exponent Failure Analysis Associates, Inc., May 2001; http://www3.ntsb.gov/events/2006/PhiladelphiaPA/Exhibits/350563.pdf.
- 3.
Crafts C, Borek T, Mowry C, “Safety Testing of 18650-Style Lithium-ion Cells,” Sandia National Laboratories, SAND2000-1454C, May 2000.
- 4.
Roth EP, Crafts CC, Doughty DH, McBreen J, “Advanced Technology Development Program for Lithium-Ion Batteries: Thermal Abuse Performance of 18650 Li-Ion Cells,” Sandia Report: SAND2004-0584, March 2004.
- 5.
ASTM E681 describes a standard test method for determining flammability limits.
- 6.
Data on the effect of dilution with carbon dioxide on carbon monoxide and methane flammability limits can be found in Lewis B, von Elbe G, Combustion, Flames and Explosions of Gases, 2nd Edition, Academic Press, New York, 1961. Data on the effect of dilution with carbon dioxide on ethylene and propylene flammability limits can be found in Coward HF, Jones W, Limits of Flammability of Gases and Vapors, Bulletin 503, US Bureau of Mines, 1952.
- 7.
Data on the effect of initial gas temperature on the flammability limits of methane can be found in Wierzba I, Ale BB, “The Effect of Time of Exposure to Elevated Temperatures on the Flammability Limits of Some Common Gaseous Fuels in Air,” Journal of Eng. for Gas Turbines and Power, 121, January 1999, pp. 74–79.
- 8.
Data on the effect of atmospheric pressure on the flammability limits of natural gas/air mixtures can be found in Lewis B, von Elbe G, Combustion, Flames and Explosions of Gases, 2nd Edition, Academic Press, New York, 1961.
- 9.
Babrauskas V, Grayson SJ (eds), Heat Release in Fires, E&FN Spon, New York, 1992.
- 10.
The experimental result can be compared to the spurious result that would be produced if a CO2 extinguisher were fired into an oxygen consumption calorimeter. Based on a lack of oxygen and the presence of high quantities of CO2, the instrument would respond with a high heat release reading.
- 11.
Estimates based on Exponent examinations of 18650 cells from various cell manufacturers.
- 12.
Harmon J, Gopalakrishnan P, Mikolajczak C, “US FAA-style flammability assessment of lithium-ion batteries packed with and contained in equipment (UN3481),” US Government Docket ID: PHMSA-2009-00095-0117, PHMSA-2009-00095-0119.1, PHMSA-2009-00095-0119.2, and PHMSA-2009-00095-0120.1, March 2010.
- 13.
Webster H, “Flammability Assessment of Bulk-Packed, Nonrechargeable Lithium Primary Batteries in Transport Category Aircraft,” DOT/FAA/AR-04/26, June 2004.
- 14.
Mikolajczak CJ, Wagner-Jauregg A, “US FAA-Style Flammability Assessment of Lithium Ion Cells and Battery Packs in Aircraft Cargo Holds,” Exponent Failure Analysis Associates, Inc., April 2005; PHMSA-RSPA-2004-19886-0044.
- 15.
The box arrangement in this test may have affected the reading at 12 inches.
- 16.
Webster H, “Flammability Assessment of Bulk-Packed, Rechargeable Lithium-Ion Cells in Transport Category Aircraft,” DOT/FAA/AR-06/38, September 2006, http://www.fire.tc.faa.gov/pdf/06-38.pdf.
- 17.
Summer SM, “Flammability Assessment of Lithium-Ion and Lithium-Ion Polymer Battery Cells Designated for Aircraft Power Usage,” DOT/FAA/AR-09/55, January 2010, http://www.fire.tc.faa.gov/pdf/09-55.pdf.
- 18.
Lain MJ, Teagle DA, Cullen J, Dass V, “Dealing with In-Flight Lithium Battery Fires in Portable Electronic Devices,” CAA Paper 2003/4, July 30, 2003.
- 19.
Advance Change Notices to NSTM 555VIR12 and NSTM 555V2R11 for Lithium Battery Firefighting Procedures, July 21, 2009.
- 20.
http://www.fire.tc.faa.gov/systems/handheld/handheld.asp, include a link to a video entitled, “Extinguishing In-flight Laptop Computer Fires.”
- 21.
NFPA 10, “Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers,” defines Class C fires as fires involving energized electrical equipment.
- 22.
NFPA 10, “Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers,” defines Class B fires as fires involving flammable liquids and gases.
- 23.
NFPA 10, “Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers,” defines Class A fires as fires involving ordinary combustible materials such as paper, wood, cloth, and many plastics.
- 24.
See for example, the effect of Halon addition on flammability of methane in “Basics of Fire and Science,” Section 1, Chapter 1, Fire Protection Handbook, 18th Edition, National Fire Protection Association, 1997.
- 25.
Webster H, “Flammability Assessment of Bulk-Packed, Rechargeable Lithium-Ion Cells in Transport Category Aircraft,” DOT/FAA/AR-06/38, September 2006, http://www.fire.tc.faa.gov/pdf/06-38.pdf.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2011 Fire Protection Research Foundation
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Mikolajczak, C., Kahn, M., White, K., Long, R.T. (2011). Lithium-Ion Fire Hazard Assessment. In: Lithium-Ion Batteries Hazard and Use Assessment. SpringerBriefs in Fire. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3486-3_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3486-3_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-3485-6
Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-3486-3
eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)