Abstract
Is selective rehearsal possible for nonverbal information? Two experiments addressed this question using the item method directed forgetting paradigm, where the advantage of remember items over forget items is ascribed to selective rehearsal favoring the remember items. In both experiments, difficult-to-name abstract symbols were presented for study, followed by a recognition test. Directed forgetting effects were evident for these symbols, regardless of whether they were or were not spontaneously named. Critically, a directed forgetting effect was observed for unnamed symbols even when the symbols were studied under verbal suppression to prevent verbal rehearsal. This pattern indicates that a form of nonverbal rehearsal can be used strategically (i.e., selectively) to enhance memory, even when verbal rehearsal is not possible.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Basden, B. H., &Basden, D. R. (1996). Directed forgetting: Further comparisons of the item and list methods.Memory,4, 633–653. doi: 10.1080/741941000
Basden, B. H., Basden, D. R., &Gargano, G. J. (1993). Directed forgetting in implicit and explicit memory tests: A comparison of methods.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,19, 603–616. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.19.3.603
Durso, F. T., &O’Sullivan, C. S. (1983). Naming and remembering proper and common nouns and pictures.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,9, 497–510. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.9.3.497
Goernert, P. N., Widner, R. L., Jr., &Otani, H. (2007). Classification accuracy across multiple tests following item method directed forgetting.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,60, 1178–1186.
Graefe, T. M., &Watkins, M. J. (1980). Picture rehearsal: An effect of selectively attending to pictures no longer in view.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,6, 156–162. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.6.2.156
Guérard, K., &Tremblay, S. (2008). Revisiting evidence for modularity and functional equivalence across verbal and spatial domains in memory.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,34, 556–569. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.34.3.556
Hauswald, A., &Kissler, J. (2008). Directed forgetting of complex pictures in an item method paradigm.Memory,16, 797–809.
Hourihan, K. L., &MacLeod, C. M. (2008). Directed forgetting meets the production effect: Distinctive processing is resistant to intentional forgetting.Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology,62, 242–246. doi: 10.1037/1196-1961.62.4.242
Hourihan, K. L., &Taylor, T. L. (2006). Cease remembering: Control processes in directed forgetting.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,32, 1354–1365. doi: 10.1037/0096-1523.32.6.1354
MacLeod, C. M. (1975). Long-term recognition and recall following directed forgetting.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory,1, 271–279. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.1.3.271
MacLeod, C. M. (1998). Directed forgetting. In J. M. Golding & C. M. MacLeod (Eds.),Intentional forgetting: Interdisciplinary approaches (pp. 1–57). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
MacLeod, C. M., &Daniels, K. A. (2000). Direct versus indirect tests of memory: Directed forgetting meets the generation effect.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,7, 354–359.
MacLeod, C. M., Gopie, N., Hourihan, K. L., Neary, K. R., & Ozubko, J. D. (in press). The production effect: Delineation of a phenomenon.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition.
Paivio, A. (1969). Mental imagery in associative learning and memory.Psychological Review,76, 241–263.
Proctor, R. W. (1983). Recognition memory for pictures as a function of poststimulus interval: An empirical clarification of existing literature.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,9, 256–262. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.9.2.256
Proctor, R. W. (1985). How flexible is picture rehearsal? Discussion of Watkins’ comment.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,11, 825–828. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.11.1-4.825
Quinlan, C. K., Taylor, T. L., & Fawcett, J. M. (in press). Directed forgetting: Comparing pictures and words.Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology.
Richardson, J. T. E., &Baddeley, A. D. (1975). The effect of articulatory suppression in free recall.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,14, 623–629. doi: 10.1016/S0022-5371(75)80049-1
Rundus, D. (1971). Analysis of rehearsal processes in free recall.Journal of Experimental Psychology,89, 63–77. doi: 10.1037/h0031185
Schooler, J. W., &Engstler-Schooler, T. Y. (1990). Verbal overshadowing of visual memories: Some things are better left unsaid.Cognitive Psychology,22, 36–71. doi: 10.1016/0010-0285(90)90003-M
Shaffer, W., &Shiffrin, R. M. (1972). Rehearsal and storage of visual information.Journal of Experimental Psychology,92, 292–296. doi: 10.1037/h0032076
Shepard, R. N. (1967). Recognition memory for words, sentences, and pictures.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,6, 156–163. doi: 10.1016/S0022-5371(67)80067-7
Slamecka, N. J., &Graf, P. (1978). The generation effect: Delineation of a phenomenon.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory,4, 592–604. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.4.6.592
Standing, L., Conezio, J., &Haber, R. N. (1970). Perception and memory for pictures: Single-trial learning of 2500 visual stimuli.Psychonomic Science,19, 73–74.
Watkins, M. J. (1985). Strategies of picture rehearsal: A comment on Proctor’s (1983) article.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,11, 821–824. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.11.1-4.821
Watkins, M. J., &Graefe, T. M. (1981). Delayed rehearsal of pictures.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,20, 276–288. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(81)90428-X
Watkins, M. J., Peynircioğlu, Z. F., &Brems, D. J. (1984). Pictorial rehearsal.Memory & Cognition,12, 553–557.
Woodward, A. E., Jr.,Bjork, R. A., &Jongeward, R. H., Jr. (1973). Recall and recognition as a function of primary rehearsal.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,12, 608–617. doi: 10.1016/S0022-5371(73)*0040-4
Wright, A. A., Cook, R. G., Rivera, J. J., Shyan, M. R., Neiworth, J. J., &Jitsumori, M. (1990). Naming, rehearsal, and interstimulus interval effects in memory processing.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,16, 1043–1059. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.16.6.1043
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
This research was supported by Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada Discovery Grant A7459 and by NSERC PGS-D and CGS-D scholarships.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hourihan, K.L., Ozubko, J.D. & MacLeod, C.M. Directed forgetting of visual symbols: Evidence for nonverbal selective rehearsal. Memory & Cognition 37, 1059–1068 (2009). https://doi.org/10.3758/MC.37.8.1059
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/MC.37.8.1059