Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Natural Turf Surfaces

The Case for Continued Research

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Sports Medicine Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

It is well documented that health and social benefits can be attained through participation in sport and exercise. Participation, particularly in sports, benefits from appropriate surface provisions that are safe, affordable and high quality preferably across the recreational to elite continuum. Investment, construction and research into artificial sports surfaces have increased to meet this provision. However, not all sports (e.g. golf, rugby and cricket) are suited to training and match play on artificial turf without compromising some playing characteristics of the games. Therefore, full sport surface provision cannot be met without the use of natural turf surfaces, which also have an important role as green spaces in the built environment. Furthermore, a significant number of people participate in outdoor sport on natural turf pitches, although this is a declining trend as the number of synthetic turf surfaces increases. Despite natural turf being a common playing surface for popular sports such as soccer,rugby and cricket, few biomechanical studies have been performed using natural turf conditions. It is proposed that if natural turf surfaces are to help meet the provision of sports surfaces, advancement in the construction and sustainability of natural turf surface design is required. The design of a natural turf surface should also be informed by knowledge of surface related overuse injury risk factors.

This article reviews biomechanical, engineering, soil mechanics, turfgrass science, sports medicine and injury related literature with a view to proposing a multidisciplinary approach to engineering a more sustainable natural turf sport surface. The present article concludes that an integrated approach incorporating an engineering and biomechanical analysis of the effects of variations in natural turf media on human movement and the effects of variations in human movement on natural turf is primarily required to address the longer-term development of sustainable natural turf playing surfaces. It also recommends that the use of ‘natural turf’ as a catch-all categorization in injury studies masks the spatial and temporal variation within and among such surfaces, which could be important.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Table I
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

references

  1. World Health Organization.Health and development through physical activity and sport [online]. Available from URL: http://www.whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2003/WHO_NMH_NPH_PAH_03.2.pdf. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2003 [Accessed 2007 Nov 28]

    Google Scholar 

  2. Department of Health. At least five a week: evidence on the impact of physical activity and its relationship to health. Department of Health, Physical Activity, Health Improvement and Prevention 2003 [online]. Available from URL: http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/PublicationsPolicyAndGuidance/DH_4080994 [Accessed 2007 Nov 28]

  3. DCMS.The Government’s plan for sport: a sporting future for all. Published by the Department for Culture Media and Sport (DCMS) 2001 [online]. Available from URL http://www.culture.gov.uk/Reference_library/Publications/archive 2001 [Accessed 2007 Nov 28]

    Google Scholar 

  4. United Nations. World urbanization prospects: the 2007 revision, executive summary. New York: Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, 2008

    Google Scholar 

  5. Foster C, Hillsdon M, Cavill N, et al. Understanding participation in sport: a systematic review. Sport England report. London: Sport England, 2005

    Google Scholar 

  6. Torg J, Quendenfeld T, Landau B. The shoe-surface interface and its relationship to football knee injuries. J Sports Med 1974; 2: 261–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Andreasson G, Olofsson B. Surface and shoe deformation in sport activities and injuries. In: Nigg BM, Kerr BA, editors. The biomechanical aspects of sport shoes and playing surfaces. Calgary: The University of Calgary, 1983: 51–61

    Google Scholar 

  8. McCarthy P. Artificial turf: does it cause more injuries? Phys Sportsmed 1989; 17: 159–64

    Google Scholar 

  9. International Rugby Board. Regulation 22: standard relating to the use of artificial playing surfaces — IRB performance specification for artificial surfaces for rugby. Dublin: International Rugby Board (IRB), 2008 Jan

    Google Scholar 

  10. FIFA. Quality concept: handbook of requirements for football turf. Geneva: Fédération Internationale de Football Association, 2006

    Google Scholar 

  11. Sport England. Participation in sport in England: 2002. London: English Sports Council (Sport England), 2002

    Google Scholar 

  12. Spencer M, Lawrence S, Rechichi M, et al. Time motion analysis of elite field hockey, with special reference to repeated — sprint activity. J Sports Sci 2004; 22: 843–50

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Kolitzus HJ. Functional standards for playing surfaces. In: Frederick EC, editor. Sport shoes and playing surfaces: biomechanical properties. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics Pubishers Inc., 1984: 98–118

    Google Scholar 

  14. Nigg BM, Yeadon MR. Biomechanical aspects of playing surfaces. J Sports Sci 1987; 5: 117–45

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Cox AL. Test methods for assessing the performance of sports surfaces. In: Nigg BM, Cole GK, Stefanyshyn DJ,editors. Sports surfaces. Calgary: he University of Calgary, 2003: 269–91

    Google Scholar 

  16. Baker S. Temporal variation of selected mechanical properties of natural turf football pitches. J Sports Turf Res Inst 1991; 67: 83–92

    Google Scholar 

  17. James IT, Blackburn DWK, Godwin RJ. Mole drainage as an alternative to sand slitting in natural turf sports surfaces on clays. Soil Use Manage 2007; 23: 28–35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. James IT, Hann MJ, Godwin RJ. Design and operational considerations for the use of mole ploughing in the drainage of sports pitches. Biosyst Eng 2007; 97: 99–107

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. McLeod AJ. An assessment of the benefits of artificial turf over natural turf playing surfaces within the independent school environment. [dissertation]. Cranfield: Cranfield University, 2003

    Google Scholar 

  20. NPFA. The six-acre standard. London: National Playing Fields Association, 2001

    Google Scholar 

  21. Baker SW, Cook A, Adams WA. Soil characteristics of first class cricket pitches and their influence on playing performance. J Turfgrass Sci 1998; 74: 63–79

    Google Scholar 

  22. Grace J. The effect of wind on grasses. J Exp Botany 1974; 25: 542–51

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Meyers MC, Barnhill BS. Incidence causes and severity of high school football injuries on fieldturf versus natural grass. Am J Sports Med 2004; 32: 1626–38

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Fuller CW, Dick RW, Corlette J, et al. Comparison of the incidence, nature and cause of injuries sustained on grass and new generation artificial turf by male and female football players. Part 1: match injuries. Br J Sports Med 2007; 41 SI: 20–6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Fuller CW, Dick RW, Corlette J, et al. Comparison of the incidence, nature and cause of injuries sustained on grass and new generation artificial turf by male and female football players. Part 2: training injuries. Br J Sports Med 2007; 41 SI: 27–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Ekstrand J, Timpka T, Hägglund M. Risk of injury in elite football played on artificial turf versus natural grass: a prospective two-cohort study. Br J Sports Med 2006; 40: 975–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Steffen K, Andersen TE, Bahr R. Risk of injury on artificial turf and natural grass in young female football players. Br J Sports Med 2007; 41 SI: 33–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Martinez A, Dura JV, Duenas L, et al. Artificial and natural turf: biomechanical differences between surfaces. Communications of the Fifth World Congress on Science and Football. J Sports Sci 2004; 22: 494–5

    Google Scholar 

  29. Dick RW, Schmalz R, Diehl N, et al. A review of game injuries by surface and injury mechanism in NCAA intercollegiate sports. In: Nigg BM, Cole GK, Stefanyshyn DJ,editors. Sports surfaces. Calgary: The University of Calgary, 2003: 107–23

    Google Scholar 

  30. Adams WA, Stewart VI, Thornton DJ. The assessment of sands suitable for use in sportsfields. J Sports Turf Res Inst 1971; 47: 77–85

    Google Scholar 

  31. Zamparo P, Perini R, Orizio C, et al. The energy cost of walking or running on sand. J Eur J Appl Physiol 1992; 65: 183–7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Reilly T. Science and football: a history and an update. In: Reilly T, Cabri J, Araujo D, editors. Science and football V. Oxon: Routledge, 2005: 3–12

    Google Scholar 

  33. Bonstingl RW, Morehouse CA, Nichol B. Torques developed by different types of shoes on various playing surfaces. Med Sci Sports 1975; 7: 127–31

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Brown RP. Performance tests for artificial sports surfaces. Polym Test 1987; 7: 279–92

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Valiant GA. Transmission and attenuation of heel strike accelerations. In: Cavanagh PR, editor. Biomechanics of distance running. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 1990: 225–47

    Google Scholar 

  36. Dixon SJ, Batt ME, Collop AC. Artificial playing surfaces research: a review of medical, engineering and biomechanical aspects. Int J Sports Med 1999; 20: 209–18

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Stiles VH, Dixon SJ. The influence of different playing surfaces on the biomechanics of a tennis running forehand foot plant. J Appl Biomech 2006; 22: 14–24

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Coyles VR, Lake MJ, Patritti BL. Comparative evaluation of soccer boot traction during cutting manoeuvres: methodological considerations for field testing. In: Haake SJ, editor. The engineering of sport. Cambridge: Blackwell Science, 1998: 183–90

    Google Scholar 

  39. Coyles VR, Lake MJ. Forefoot plantar pressure distribution inside the soccer boot during running. Proceedings of the International Society of Biomechanics Footwear Biomechanics Group; 1999 Aug 5-7; Canmore

    Google Scholar 

  40. Morag E, Johnson DA. Traction requirements of young soccer players [abstract]. In: Hennig E, Stacoff A, editors. Proceedings of the Symposium on Footwear Biomechanics; 2001 Jul 5-7; Zurich, 62-3

    Google Scholar 

  41. Eils E, Streyl M, Linnenbecker S, et al. Characteristic plantar pressure distribution patterns during soccer-specific movements. Am J Sports Med 2004; 32: 140–5

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. James SL, Bates BT, Osternig LR. Injuries to runners. Am J Sports Med 1978; 6: 40–50

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Cavanagh PR, La Fortune MA. Ground reaction forces in distance running. J Biomech 1980; 13: 397–406

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Light LH, MacLellan GE, Klenerman L. Skeletal transients on heel strike in normal walking with different footwear. J Biomech 1979; 13: 477–80

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Frederick EC, Clarke TE, Hamill CL. The effect of running shoe design on shock attenuation. In: Frederick EC, editor. Sports shoes and playing surfaces. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 1984: 190–8

    Google Scholar 

  46. Nigg BM, Frederick EC, Hawes MR, et al. Factors influencing short-term pain and injuries in tennis. Int J Sport Biomech 1986; 2: 156–65

    Google Scholar 

  47. Miller DI. Ground reaction forces in distance running. In: Cavanagh PR, editor. Biomechanics of distance running. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 1990: 203–23

    Google Scholar 

  48. Hamill J, Bates BT, Holt KG. Timing of lower extremity joint actions during treadmill running. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992; 24: 807–13

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Stergiou N, Bates BT. The relationship between subtaler and knee joint function as a possible mechanism for running injuries. Gait Posture 1997; 6: 177–85

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Richie DH, DeVries HA, Endo CK. Shin muscle activity and sports surfaces: an electromyographical study. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc 1993; 83: 181–90

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Stucke H, Baudzus W, Baumann W. On friction characteristics of playing surfaces. In: Frederick EC, editor. Sportsshoes and playing surfaces. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 1984: 87–97

    Google Scholar 

  52. Nigg BM, Denoth J. Sportplatzbelaege (playing surfaces). Zurich: Juris Verlag, 1980

    Google Scholar 

  53. Nigg BM, Segesser B. The influence of playing surfaces onthe load on the locomotor system and on football andtennis injuries. J Sports Med 1988; 5: 375–85

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Nigg BM, Cole GK, Stefanyshyn DJ. Impact forces during exercise and sport activities. In: Nigg BM, Cole GK, Stefanyshyn DJ, editors. Sports surfaces. Calgary: The University of Calgary, 2003: 13–29

    Google Scholar 

  55. Ekstrand J. Soccer injuries and their prevention. Linkoeping: UniversityMedical Dissertations (no. 130), 1982

    Google Scholar 

  56. Bastholt P. Professional tennis (ATP tour) and number of medical treatments in relation to type of surface [online]. Med Sci Tennis 2000; 5(2).Available from URL: http://www.stms.nl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=881&Itemid=263 [Accessed 2008 Dec 1].

    Google Scholar 

  57. Orchard J. Is there a relationship between ground and climatic conditions and injuries in football. J Sports Med 2002; 32: 419–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Canaway PM, Bell MJ, Holmes G, et al. Standards for the playing quality of natural turf for association football. In: Schmidt RC, Hoerner EF, Milner EN, et al., editors. Natural and artificial playing fields: characteristics and safety features. Philadelphia (PA): ASTM, 1990: 29–47

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  59. Orchard J. The AFL Penetrometer study: work in progress. J Sci Med Sport 2001; 4: 220–32

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Garcia AC, Martinez A, Solaz JS, et al. Development of a method for measuring horizontal forces in soccer boots studs during skills performance. Proceedings of the International Society of Biomechanics Footwear Biomechanics Group; 1999 Aug 5-7; Canmore

    Google Scholar 

  61. Milburn PD, Barry EB. Shoe-surface interaction and the reduction of injury in rugby union. J Sports Med 1998; 25: 319–27

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Livesay GA, Reda DR, Nauman EA. Peak torque and rotational stiffness developed at the shoe-surface interface: the effect of shoe type and playing surface. Am J Sports Med 2006; 34: 415–22

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Lambson RB, Barnhill BS, Higgins RW. Football cleat design and its effect on anterior cruciate ligament injuries: a three-year prospective study. Am J Sports Med 1996; 24: 155–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Carré MJ, Kirk RF, Haake SJ. Developing relevant tests for traction of studded footwear on surfaces. In: Fleming P, Young C, Dixon S, et al., editors. STARSS 2007. Proceedings of the First International Conference of the SportSURF Network;2007 Sep 17-18; Loughborough: Loughborough University

    Google Scholar 

  65. Orchard J, Chivers IH, Aldous DE, et al. Rye grass is associated with fewer non-contact anterior cruciate ligament injuries than Bermuda grass. Br J Sports Med 2005; 39: 704–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Chivers IH, Aldous DE, Orchard J. The Relationship of Australian Football grass surfaces to anterior cruciate ligament injury. Int Turfgrass Soc Res J 2005; 10: 327–32

    Google Scholar 

  67. Hodgson Phillips L, Standen PJ, Batt ME. Effects of seasonal change in rugby league on the incidence of injury. Br J Sports Med 1998; 32: 144–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Fleming PR, Young C, Roberts JR, et al. Human perceptions of artificial surfaces for field hockey. Sports Eng 2005; 8: 121–36

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Canaway PM. Fundamental techniques in the study of turfgrass wear: an advance report on research. J Sports Turf Res Inst 1975; 51: 104–15

    Google Scholar 

  70. Canaway PM, Bell MJ. Technical note: an apparatus measuring traction and friction on natural and artificial playing surfaces. J Sports Turf Res Inst 1986; 62: 211–4

    Google Scholar 

  71. Andreasson G, Lindenberger U, Renstrom P, et al. Torque developed at simulated sliding between sports shoes and an artificial turf. Am J Sports Med 1986; 14: 225–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. McNitt AS, Middour RO, Waddington DV. Development and evaluation of a method to measure traction on turf surfaces. J Test Eval 1997; 25: 99–107

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Blackburn S, Nicol A, Walker C. Development of a biomechanically validated turf testing rig. In: Proceedings of the International Society of Biomechanics XXth Congress — ASB 29th Annual Meeting; 2005 Jul 31-Aug 5; Cleveland

    Google Scholar 

  74. FIH. Handbook of performance requirements and test procedures for synthetic hockey pitches: outdoor. Lausanne: Federation Internationale de Hockey, 1999

    Google Scholar 

  75. ITF. Court surface classification scheme. London: International Tennis Federation, 2000

    Google Scholar 

  76. Young C, Fleming PR. A review of mechanical impact testing devices for sport surfaces. In: Fleming P, Young C, Dixon S, et al., editors. STARSS 2007. Proceedings of the First International Conference of the SportSURF Network; 2007 Sep 17-18. Loughborough: Loughborough University

    Google Scholar 

  77. Dabnichki P. Force measurement and calculation in sport activities. In: Haake SJ, editor. The engineering of sport. Cambridge: Blackwell Science, 1998: 317–24

    Google Scholar 

  78. Lafortune MA, Morag E, Pisciotta J. Sports surface and athletic footwear creation. In: Nigg BM, Cole GK, Stefanyshyn DJ, editors. Sports surfaces. Calgary: The University of Calgary, 2003: 217–32

    Google Scholar 

  79. Smith N, Dyson R, Hale T. The effects of sole configuration on ground reaction force measured on natural turf during soccer specific actions. In: Spinks W, Reilly T, Murphy A, editors. Science and football IV. London: Routledge, 2002: 44–9

    Google Scholar 

  80. Smith N, Dyson R, Janaway L. Ground reaction force measures when running and jogging in soccer boots and soccer training shoes on a natural turf surface. Sports Eng 2004; 7: 159–67

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Tillman MD, Fiolkowski P, Bauer JA, et al. In-shoe plantar measurements during running on different surfaces: changes in temporal and kinetic parameters. Sports Eng 2002; 5: 121–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  82. Ford KR, Manson NA, Evans BJ, et al. Comparison of in-shoe loading patterns on natural grass and synthetic turf. J Sci Med Sport 2006; 9: 433–40

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Dixon SJ, James IT, Blackburn DWK, et al. Influence of footwear and soil density on loading within the shoe and soil surface during running. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, part P. J Sports Eng Technol 2008; 222: 1–10

    Google Scholar 

  84. Gonzalez JC, Martinez A, Montero J, et al. Analysis of the horizontal force in soccer boot studs for specific movements.In: Proceedings of the ISB Footwear Biomechanics Group; 2003 Jul 3-5; Queenstown

    Google Scholar 

  85. Shorten M, Hudson B, Himmelsbach J. Shoe-surface traction of conventional and in-filled synthetic turf football surfaces. In: Proceedings of International Society of Biomechanics XIXth Congress; 2003 Jul 6-11; Dunedin, 360

    Google Scholar 

  86. Brachet P, Blackburn S, Nicol AC, et al. Body and limb accelerations during football activities on artificial turfs [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the International Society of Biomechanics XIXth Congress; 2003 Jul 6-11; Dunedin, 39

    Google Scholar 

  87. Stiles VH, Dixon SJ, Guisasola IN, et al. Kinematic response to variations in natural turf during running. In: Estivalet M, Brisson P, editors. The engineering of sport 7.Vol 1. Paris: Springer, 2008: 499–508

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  88. Blackburn S, Brachet P, Nicol AC, et al. Player/ground interaction on artificial turf. In: Proceedings of the International Society of Biomechanics XIXth Congress; 2003 Jul 6-11; Dunedin, 34

    Google Scholar 

  89. Stiles VH, Dixon SJ, James IT. An initial investigation of human-natural turf interaction in the laboratory. In: Moritz EF, Haake S, editors. The engineering of sport 6. Vol 2. New York: Springer, 2006: 255–60

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  90. Stiles VH, Dixon SJ, Guisasola IN, et al. Biomechanical response to variations in natural turf surfaces during running and turning. In: Fleming P, Young C, Dixon S, et al. STARSS 2007. Proceedings of the First International Conference of the SportSURF Network. 2007 Sep 17-18; Loughborough: Loughborough University

    Google Scholar 

  91. James IT, Waine TW, Bradley RI, et al. Determination of soil type boundaries using electromagnetic scanning techniques. Biosyst Eng 2003; 86: 421–30

    Article  Google Scholar 

  92. Canaway PM. The response of Lolium perenne turf grown on sand and soil to fertilizer nitrogen III: aspects of playability — ball bounce resilience and shear strength. J Sports Turf Res Inst 1984; 60: 27–36

    Google Scholar 

  93. Baker SW. The reinforcement of turfgrass areas using plastic and other synthetic materials: a review. Int Turf Soc Res J 1997; 8: 3–13

    Google Scholar 

  94. McNitt AS, Landschoot PJ. Effects of soil reinforcing materials on the surface hardness, soil bulk density and water content of a sand root zone. Crop Sci 2003; 43: 957–66

    Article  Google Scholar 

  95. Withers RT, Maricic Z, Wasilewski S, et al. Match analysis of professional Australian soccer players. JHum Mov Stud 1982; 8: 159–76

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The assistance from Sport England and the Football Foundation is gratefully acknowledged. The authors also gratefully acknowledge funding by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, UK under project EP/C512243/1(P). The authors have no potential conflicts of interest directly relevant to the contents of this article.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, EX1 2LU, UK

    Victoria H. Stiles & Sharon J. Dixon

  2. School of Applied Sciences, Cranfield University, Cranfield, UK

    Iain T. James & Igor N. Guisasola

Authors
  1. Victoria H. Stiles
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Iain T. James
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Sharon J. Dixon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Igor N. Guisasola
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Victoria H. Stiles.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Stiles, V.H., James, I.T., Dixon, S.J. et al. Natural Turf Surfaces. sports med 39, 65–84 (2009). https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200939010-00005

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200939010-00005

Keywords

Search

Navigation