Abstract
Contrasts that exist in urban infrastructure and accessibility of public health and social services between suburban and urban districts of mega-cities have been well defined. There has been less research in small-sized cities (population under 500,000). This cross-sectional study was done on 1,728 ever-married reproductive-aged women living in Manisa, Turkey, in the year 2000. The probability proportion to size cluster sampling approach was used in the sample selection. Data were collected for women and 7,016 inhabitants of the interviewed households. The data were collected from the women by face to face interviews. Suburban areas (illegally occupied public land called “Gecekondu” dwellings) in Manisa differ from other urban regions (legal settlements of the city) on socioeconomic factors including household occupancy, adult literacy, social class, rates of religious marriages, unemployment, health insurance coverage, migration, cultural segregation, and social status of women. Some traditional practices were also highly prevalent in gecekondu families, where poverty is more common. Although gross fertility rate (GFR), total fertility rate (TFR), and percent decrease of the TFR were higher for gecekondu women than urban women, total wanted fertility rate (TWFR) was lower. In urban neighborhoods, prevalence of contraceptive use was higher, and the infant and child mortality rates were lower; however, when rates were adjusted for mother’s age, education and number of births, the differences turned out to be nonsignificant. Women living in urban areas receive better antenatal care, child immunization services, and professional health delivery assistance and services in a health facility; these services are very scarce in gecekondu districts. Health status of gecekondu populations can be improved by social and economic support and by making health services more available and accessible, especially maternity and child health services.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Mathur OP. New strategies for urban poverty. Work in Progress: United Nations University. 1991;13:3.
Lacabana M, Cariola C. Globalization and metropolitan expansion: residential strategies and livelihoods in Caracas and its periphery. Environ Urban. 2003;15:65–74.
Logan JR, Alba RD, McNulty T, Fisher B. Making a place in the metropolis: locational attainment in cities and suburbs. Demography. 1996;33:443–453.
Farley R. Residential segregation in urbanized areas of the United States in 1970: an analysis of social class and racial differences. Demography. 1977;14:497–518.
Massey DS, Denton NA. Hyper segregation in U.S. metropolitan areas: black and Hispanic segregation along five dimensions. Demography. 1989;26:373–391.
Hart KD, Kunitz SJ, Sell RR, Mukamel DB. Metropolitan governance, residential segregation, and mortality among African Americans. Am J Public Health. 1998;88:434–438.
Fong E, Shibuya K. The spatial separation of the poor in Canadian cities. Demography. 2000;37:449–459.
Shaw M, Gordon D, Dorling D, Mitchell R, Smith GD. Increasing mortality differentials by residential area level of poverty: Britain 1981–1997. Soc Sci Med. 2000;51:151–153.
Pickett KE, Pearl M. Multilevel analyses of neighbourhood socioeconomic context and health outcomes: a critical review. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2001;55:111–122.
Rossi-Espagnet A, Tabibzadeh I. Strengthening Urban Health Services. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Division of Strengthening Health Services; 1995. WHO/SHS/CC/95. 1 Paper, No. 9.
World Bank. World Development Report 1993. Washington, DC: World Bank; 1993.
Abidoye RO, Ihebuzor NN. Assessment of nutritional status using anthropometric methods on 1–4 year old children in an urban ghetto in Lagos, Nigeria. Nutr Health. 2001;15:23–39.
Sohler NL, Arno PS, Chang CJ, Fang J, Schechter C. Income inequality and infant mortality in New York City. J Urban Health. 2003;80:650–657.
Rabbani F, Merchant AT. Economic development and health status among the poor in squatter settlements of Karachi. Pak Medical Assoc. 1999;49:117–121.
Freeman HL. Mental Health and Environment. London: Churchill Livingstone; 1984.
Coleman A. Utopia on Trial: Vision and Reality in Planned Housing. London: Hiliary Shipman; 1985.
Strachan DP, Elton RA. Relationship between respiratory morbidity in children and the home environment. Family Practice. 1986;3:137–142.
Marcus TA. Cold, condensation, climate and poverty in Glasgow. Paper presented at: Conference on Healthy Housing: Promoting Good Health; March 19–21, 1993; University of Warwick, Coventry, UK.
Boardman B. Defining affordable warmth. Paper presented at: Conference on Unhealthy Housing: Prevention and Remedies; March 1987; University of Warwick, Coventry, UK.
Birtchnell J, Masters N, Deahl M. Depression and physical environment. A study of young married women on a London housing estate. Br J Psychiatry. 1988;153:56–64.
Blackman T, Evason E, Melaugh M, Woods R. Housing and health: a case study of two areas in West Belfast. J Soc Policy. 1989;18:1–26.
Hacettepe University Institute of Population Studies. 1988 Turkish Fertility and Health Survey. Ankara, Turkey: Hacettepe University Institute of Population Studies; 1989.
Townsend P, Davidson N. Inequalities in Health, the Black Report. London: Penguin Group; 1990.
Lagasse R, Humblet PC, Lenaerts A, Godin I, Moens GF. Health and social inequalities in Belgium. Soc Sci Med. 1990;31:237–248.
Kirchgassler KU. Health and social inequalities in the Federal Republic of Germany. Soc Sci Med. 1990;31:249–256.
Aiach P, Curtis S. Social inequalities in self-reported morbidity: interpretation and comparison of data from Britain and Frace. Soc Sci Med. 1990;31:267–274.
Cook G. Health and social inequalities in Ireland. Soc Sci Med. 1990;31:285–290.
Dedeoĝlu N. Health and social inequalities in Turkey. Soc Sci Med. 1990;31:387–392.
Sufian AJM. A multivariate analysis of infant mortality in developing countries. Nüfus Bilim Dergisi (Turk J Popul Stud). 1990;12:19–30.
Dales RE, Zwanenburg H, Burnett R, Franklin CA. Respiratory health effects of home dampness and molds among Canadian children. Am J Epidemiol. 1991;134:196–203.
Fathalla MF. Reproductive health in the world: two decades of progress and the challenge ahead. In: Khanna J, Van Look PFA, Griffin PD, eds. Reproductive Health: A Key to a Brighter Future, Biennial Report 1990–91. Special 20th Anniversary Issue. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1992:3–32.
Tezcan S, Aktekin M, Yildirim N. Anatalya il merkezindeki bir gecekondu yerlesiminde yeni ve eski gecekondu mahallelerinde toplumun demografik yapisi ve dogurganlik düzeyi (The demographic structure and fertility level of the populatioon living in the recently developed and old gecekondu neighbors in Antalya city). Nüfus Bilim Dergisi (Turk J Popul Stud). 1992;14:45–49.
Ministry of Health (Turkey). Turkish Population and Census Research 1993. Ankara, Turkey: Hacettepe University Institute of Population Studies, Macro International Inc; 1994.
Bender DE, Rivera T, Madonna D. Rutal origin as a risk factor for maternal and child health in periurban Bolivia. Soc Sci Med. 1993;37:1345–1349.
Gbesemete KP, Johnsson D. A comparison of empirical models on determinants of infant mortality: a cross-national study on Africa. Health Policy. 1993;24:155–174.
Murphy L. Allying health care and housing. Health Prog. 2005;86:17–20.
Swenson JE, Nyugen MT, Pham BS, Vu QN, Vu DM. Factors influencing infant mortality in Vietnem. J Biosoc Sci. 1993;25:285–302.
Najman JM. Health and poverty: past, present and the prospect for the future. Soc Sci Med. 1993;36:157–166.
Tezcan S, Yildirum N, Özkaya N., et al. Ahath gecekondu Bölgesinde Entegre AçS/AP Hizmetleri ve Toplum kalkinmasi Duojesi Durum Saptama Arastirmasi 1989 (Ahath Shanty Town, Integrated Maternal and Child Health/Family Planning Services and Community Development Project, Baseline Survey, 1989). Ankara, Turkey: UNICEF; 1993;RS-7/U.
Aktekin M, Dedeoĝlu N. Squatter areas in Antalya, Turkey and their health problems. Paper presented at: First Global and European Conference on City-93; October 25–30, 2003; Antwerp, Belgium.
Atkinson SJ, Cheyne J. Immunization in urban areas: issues and strategies. Bull World Health Organ. 1994;72:183–194.
Health Organization in the cities-workshop report in IVth National Public Health Congress. Toplum Ve Hekim (Community Physician). 1994;9:30–44.
Eser E, Mandiracioglu A, Sacaklioglu F, Karababa A, Doĝan F, Tokgöz M. Patchwork in medical education: rural internship. Am CCommun-Oriented Educ. 1994;7:303–308.
Mackenbach JP. Socio-economic inequalities in health in the Netherlands: impact of a five year research program. BMJ. 1994;309:1487–1491.
Asthana S. Variations in poverty and health between slum settlements: contradictory findings from Visakhapatnam, India. Soc Sci Med. 1995;40:177–188.
Department of Public Health Medicine. Eastern Health and Social Services Board and Research Unit Northern Ireland Housing Executive. Northern Ireland: Health and Housing Study; 1995.
Perdue WC, Stone LA, Gostin LO. The built enviroment and its relationship to the public’s health: the legal framework. Am J Public Health. 2003;93:1390–1394.
Evans GW. The built environment and mental health. J Urban Health. 2003;80:536–555.
State Institute of Statistics Prime Ministry Republic of Turkey Periodical Publications’ Catalogue of the State Institute of Statistics of Turkey 2005. Available at: http:// www.die.gov.tr/yayin/sur_yay_ing.pdf Accessed March 20, 2004.
Keles R. Türkiye’de Sehirlesme, Konut ve Gecekondu (Urbanisation, Housing and Shanty Town in Turkey). Istanbul Turkey: Gerçek Yayinlari; 1978.
Coruh M, Topal I. Pregnancy and pregnancy outcome in Ankara (gecekondu) adolescents. J Adolesc Health Care. 1981;1:232–235.
Dedeoĝlu N, Aktekin M, Dönmez, L. Prevalence of malnutrition and its relationship with some variables in Antalya city. çocuk Saĝliĝt ve Hastahklart Dergisi (J Pediatr). 1995;30:363–375.
Dedeoĝlu N. Kentler ve Saĝlikta e§itsizlik (Cities and inequity in health). Toplum Ve Hekim (Community Physician). 1998;13:123–125.
Dedeoĝlu N. Gecekondular ve Saĝlik Sorunlari (Gecekondu and its health problems). Bilim ve Ütopya (Sci Utopia). 1999;55:43–45.
Hacettepe University Institute of Population Studies. Turkish Population and Health Survey, 1998. Ankara, Turkey: Macro International Inc; 1999.
Brennan ME, Lancashire R. Association of childhood mortality with housing status and unemployment. J Epidemiol Community Health. 1978;32:29–33.
Newman O. Defensible Space, People and Design in the Violent City. London: Architectural Press; 1972.
Burr ML, St Leger AS, Yarnell JW. Wheezing, dampness and coal fires. Community Med. 1981;3:205–209.
Monteiro CA, Nazario CL. Evolution of enviromental determinants of health in childhood in the city of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Rev Saude Publica, 2000;34:13–18.
Stafford M, Marmot M. Neighborhood deprivation and health: does it affect us all equally? Int J Epidemiol. 2003;32:357–366.
Kuntz AE, Mackenbach JP. Measuring Socioeconomic Inequalities in Health. Copenhagen, Denmark: WHO; 1995.
Ryan M. Monitoring effects of deprivation on health. BMJ. 1995;310:398–399.
Kaplan G, Pamuk ER, Lynch J, Cohen RD. Inequality in income and mortality in the United States: analysis of mortality and potential pathways. BMJ. 1996;312:999–1003.
Mackenbach JP, Kunst AE, Cavelaars AE, Groenhof F, Geurts JJ. Socioeconomic inequalities in morbidity and mortality in Western Europe. Lancet. 1997;349:1655–1659.
Rustein SO. Pactors associated with trends in infant and child mortality in developing countries during the 1990s. Bull World Health Organ. 2000;78:1256–1270.
LeClere F, Soobader MJ. The effects of income in equlity on the health of selected US demographic groups. Am J Public Health. 2000;90:1892–1897.
Turrell G, Mengersen K. Socio-economic status and infant mortality in Australia: a national study of small urban areas, 1985–1989. Soc Sci Med. 2000;50:1209–1225.
Macintyre S, Anne E, Hiscock R, Kearns A, Der G, McKay L. What features of the home and the area might help to explain observed relationships between housing tenure and health? evidence from the west of Scotland. Health Place. 2003;9:207–218.
Kawachi I, Kennedy BP. (Socio-economic determinants of health) Health and social cohesion: why care about income inequality? BMJ. 1997;314:1037–1040.
Castro Martin T. Women’s education and fertility: results from 26 demographic and health surveys. Stud Fam Plann. 1995;26:187–202.
Sastry N. What explains rural-urban differentials in child mortality in Brazil? Soc Sci Med. 1997;44:989–1002.
Terra De Souza AC, Cufino E, Peterson KE, Gardner J, Vasconcelos do Amaral MI, Ascherio A. Variations in infant mortality rates among municipalities in the state of Ceara, Northeast Brazil: an ecological analysis. Int J Epidemiol. 1999;28:267–275.
UNESCO Statistical Yearbook 1999. Ottawa, Ontario: Renouf Publications; 1999.
Toyama N, Wakai S, Nakamura Y, Arifin A. Mother’s working status and nutritional status of children under the age of 5 in urban low-income community, Surabaya, Indonesia. J Trop Pediatr. 2001;47:179–181.
UNICEF. The State of World’s Children, 2001. New York: UNICEF; 2001.
Raum E, Arabin B, Schlaud M, Walter U, Schwatrz FW. The impact of maternal education on intrauterine growth: a comparison of former West and East Germany. Int J Epidemiol. 2001;30:81–87.
Ay S, Eser E, Ozcan C. --Tukiye’de kadm ve çocuk saĝliĝi ile ilgili bazi ölçütler ile sosyoekon deĝi§kenler arasinaki ili§ki: bir ekolojik çali§ma (The relationship between some indicators related with women and children health, and socio-economic, socio-demographic variables in Turkey: an ecological study). toplum Ve Hekim (Community Physician). 2004;19:83–91.
Andersson T, Hogberg U, Bergstrom S. Community based prevention of perinatal deaths: lessons from nineteenth-century Sweden. Int J Epidemiol. 2000;29:542–548.
Khoury SA, Massad DF. Consanguinity, fertility, reproductive wastage, infant mortality and congenital malformations in Jordan. Saudi Med J. 2000;21:150–154.
Hussian R. The impact of consanguinity and inbreeding on perinatal mortality in Karachi, Pakistan. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 1998;12:370–382.
Aholi P. Children and traditional practices. Vie Sante. 1990;4:11–14.
White L, Chalmers S, Litchfield K, Savage M. Cultural diversity and child health. J Paediatr Child Health. 2004;40:589.
Kent M. Survey report: Turkey. Popul Today. 1987;15:5.
Sahin F, Akturk A, Beyazova U, et al. Screening for developmental dysplasia of the hip: results of a 7-year follow-up study. Pediatr Int. 2004;46:162–166.
Ulusoy M, Tuncbilek E. Consanguineous marriage in Turkey and its effects on infant mortality. Nufusbil Derg. 1987;9:7–26.
Alper OM, Erengin H, Manguoglu AE, et al. Consanguineous marriages in the province of Antalya, Turkey. Ann Genet. 2004;47:129–138.
Shrestha S. Socio-cultural factors influencing adolescent pregnancy in rural Nepal. Int. J Adolesc Med Health. 2002;13:101–109.
Goldscheider C, Mosher WD. Patterns of contraceptive use in the United States: the importance of religious factors. Stud Fam Plann. 1991;22:102–115.
Adongo PB, Phillips JF, Binka FN. The influence of traditional religion on fertility regulation among the Kassena-Nankana of Northern Ghana. Stud Fam Plann. 1998;29:23–40.
Akin A, ed. Maternity Health, Family Planning and Induced Abortions in Turkey: the Results of the Further Analysis on 1998 Turkish Population and Health Survey. Ankara, Turkey: Kum Baski Hizmetleri; 2002.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Eser, E., Dinç, G., Oral, A.M. et al. Contrasting children and women’s health and the determinants of health in a small-sized city. J Urban Health 82, 666–681 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1093/jurban/jti118
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jurban/jti118