Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Assessing Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay Men: The Modern Homophobia Scale

  • Published:
International Journal of Sexuality and Gender Studies

Abstract

The authors developed the Modern Homophobia Scale (MHS), a scale that includes measures of attitudes toward lesbians (MHS-L) and attitudes toward gay men (MHS-G). An initial pool of 97 items was generated by the authors based on a review of the literature on homophobia and feedback from several focus groups. Responses to the initial pool of items were factor analyzed. The final versions of the MHS-L and the MHS-G included items reflecting the following factors: Personal Discomfort with lesbians/gay men, Institutional Homophobia toward lesbians/gay men, and the Deviance/Changeability of female/male homosexuality. Although the Personal Discomfort, Institutional, and Deviance/Changeability factors were separable, they were highly correlated and showed little evidence of divergent validity. Reactions to gay, lesbian, and heterosexual characters in written vignettes provided initial support for the validity of the MHS. Both the MHS-L and MHS-G were significantly correlated with the Index of Homophobia and the Attitudes Toward Women Scale. A greater degree of homophobia on the MHS-L and MHS-G was associated with a greater degree of socially desirable responding as measured by the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding. Lower levels of homophobia on the MHS-L and MHS-G were associated with having lesbian and gay acquaintances and friends. On the MHS-L, men and women did not differ in their overall level of homophobia toward lesbians, but significant gender differences on MHS-L factor scores were present. Compared to men, women were more supportive of gay men on all three factors of the MHS-G.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Aguero, J. E., Bloch, L., & Byrne, D. (1984). The relationships among sexual beliefs, attitudes, experience, and homophobia. Journal of Homosexuality, 10, 95–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Agnew, C. R., Thompson, V. D., Smith, V. A., Gramzow, R. H., & Currey, D. P. (1993). Proximal and distal predictors of homophobia: Framing the multivariate roots of outgroup rejection. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23, 2013–2042.

    Google Scholar 

  • Batson, C. D., Naifeh, S. J., & Pate, S. (1978). Social desirability, religious orientation, and racial prejudice. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 17, 31–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benokraitis, N. V., & Feagin, J. R. (1986). Modern sexism: Blatant, subtle, and covert discrimination. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bierly, M. M. (1985). Prejudice toward contemporary outgroups as a generalized attitude. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 15, 189–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Black, K. N., & Stevenson, M. R. (1984). The relationship of self-reported sex-role characteristics and attitudes toward homosexuality. Journal of Homosexuality, 10, 83–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blumenfeld, W. J. (Ed.) (1992). Homophobia. How we all pay the price. Boston: Beacon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bouton, R. A., Gallaher, P. E., Garlinghouse, P. A., Leal, T., Rosenstein, L. D., & Young, R. K. (1987). Scales for measuring fear of AIDS and homophobia. Journal of Personality Assessment, 51, 606–614.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, A. Y. (1981). Racism, birth control, and reproductive rights. In L. Richardson & V. Taylor (Eds.), Feminist frontiers II: Rethinking sex, gender, and society (pp. 309–320). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diamant, L. (1993). Homosexual issues in the workplace. Washington, D.C.: Taylor & Frances.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunker, B. (1987). Aging lesbians: Observations and speculations. In The Boston Lesbian Psychologies Collective (Ed.), Lesbians psychologies: Explorations and challenges. (72–82). Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, A. L., & Vasseur, R. B. (1993). Prior interpersonal contact with and attitudes toward gays and lesbians in an interviewing context. Journal of Homosexuality, 25, 31–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Faderman, L. (1981). Surpassing the love of men. New York: William Morrow.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ficarrotto, T. J. (1990). Racism, sexism, and erotophobia: Attitudes of heterosexuals toward homosexuals. Journal of Homosexuality, 19, 111–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fish, T. A., & Rye, B. J. (1991). Attitudes toward a homosexual or heterosexual person with AIDS. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21, 651–667.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fornstein, M. (1988). Homophobia: An overview. Psychiatric Annals, 18, 33–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fyfe, B. (1983). Homophobia or homosexual bias reconsidered. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 12, 549–553.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, M., Kitzinger, J., Loulan, J., & Perkins, R. (1992). Lesbian psychology, lesbian politics. Feminism and Psychology, 2, 7–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, G. L. (1982). Measuring prejudice against homosexuality (homosexism) among college students: A new scale. Journal of Social Psychology, 117, 233–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helmreich, R. L., & Spence, J. T. (1978). Work and family orientation questionnaire: An objective instrument to assess components of achievement motivation and attitudes toward family and career. Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 8, 35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henly, N. M., & Pincus, F. (1978). Interrelationship of sexist, racist and antihomosexual attitudes. Psychological Reports, 42, 83–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herek, G. M. (1984). Attitudes toward lesbians and gay men: A factor analytic study. Journal of Homosexuality, 10, 1–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herek, G. M., & Capitanio, J. P. (1995). Black heterosexuals' attitudes toward lesbians and gay men in the United States. Journal of Sex Research, 32, 95–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hong, S. (1983). Sex, religion, and factor analytically derived attitudes toward homosexuality. Australian Journal of Sex, Marriage, & Family, 4, 142–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hudson, W. W., & Ricketts, W. A. (1980). A strategy for the measurement of homophobia. Journal of Homosexuality, 5, 357–372.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kite, M. E. (1984). Sex differences in attitudes toward homosexuals: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Homosexuality, 10, 69–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krulewitz, J. E., & Nash, J. E. (1980). Effects of sex role attitudes and similarity on men's rejection of male homosexuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 67–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kurdek, L. A. (1988). Correlates of negative attitudes toward homosexuals in heterosexual college students. Sex Roles, 11, 727–736.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lance, L. M. (1987). The effects of interaction with gay persons on attitudes toward homosexuality. Human Relations, 6, 329–336.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larsen, K. S., Reed, M., & Hoffman, S. (1980). Attitudes of heterosexuals toward homosexuality: A Likert-type scale and construct validity. Journal of Sex Research, 16, 245–257.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larsen, K. S., Serra, M., & Long, E. (1990). AIDS victims and heterosexual attitudes. Journal of Homosexuality, 19, 103–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald, A. P., Jr., Huggins, J., Young, S., & Swanson, R. A. (1973). Attitudes toward homosexuality: Preservation of sex morality or the double standard. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 40, 161–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • O'Brien, F. P., & Vest, M. J. (1988). A proposed scale to measure beliefs about the consequences of employing homosexuals. Psychological Reports, 63, 547–551.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paulhus, D. L., & Reid, D. B. (1991). Enhancement and denial in socially desirable responding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 307–317.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Price, V., & Hsu, M. (1992). Public opinion about AIDS policies. Public Opinion Quarterly, 56, 29–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, N. (1993). Test construction. Unpublished manuscript, Michigan State University.

  • Sheehan, E. P., Lennon, R., & McDevitt, T. (1989). Reactions to AIDS and other illnesses: Reported interactions in the workplace. The Journal of Psychology, 123, 525–536.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simon, A. (1995). Some correlates of individual's attitudes toward lesbians. Journal of Homosexuality, 29, 89–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, K. T. (1971). Homophobia: A tentative personality profile. Psychological Reports, 29, 1091–1094.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swim, J. K., Aikin, K. J., Hall, W. S., & Hunter, B. A. (1995). Sexism and racism: Old fashioned and modern prejudices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 199–214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, A. (1983). Conceptions of masculinity and femininity as a basis for stereotypes of male and female homosexuals. In M. Ross (Ed.), Homosexuality and Social Sex Roles (pp. 37–53). New York: Haworth Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, E. H., Grisanti, C., & Pleck, J. H. (1985). Attitudes toward the male role and their correlates. Sex Roles, 13, 413–427.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tong, R. (1989). Feminist thought. Boulder, CO: Beacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van de Ven, P. (1994). Comparisons among homophobic reactions of undergraduates, high school students, and young offenders. Journal of Sex Research, 31, 117–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinberg, G. (1973). Society and the healthy homosexual. New York: St. Martin's Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinberger, L. E., & Millham, J. (1979). Attitudinal homophobia and support of traditional sex roles. Journal of Homosexuality, 4, 237–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • West, W. G. (1977). Public tolerance of homosexual behavior. Cornell Journal of Social Relations, 12, 25–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitley, B. E. (1987). The relationship of sex-role orientation to heterosexuals' attitudes toward homosexuals. Sex Roles, 17, 103–113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitley, B. E., & Kite, M. E. (1995). Sex differences in attitudes toward homosexuality: A comment on Oliver and Hyde. Psychological Bulletion, 117, 146–154.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wylies, L., & Forest, J. (1992). Religious fundamentalism, right-wing authoritarianism and prejudice. Psychological Reports, 71, 1291–1298.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology (m/c 285), University of Illinois at Chicago, 1007 W. Harrison Street, Chicago, Illinois, 60607

    Sheela Raja

  2. Department of Psychology (m/c 285), University of Illinois at Chicago, 1007 W Harrison Street, Chicago, Illinois, 60607

    Joseph P. Stokes

Authors
  1. Sheela Raja
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Joseph P. Stokes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Raja, S., Stokes, J.P. Assessing Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay Men: The Modern Homophobia Scale. International Journal of Sexuality and Gender Studies 3, 113–134 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023244427281

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023244427281

Search

Navigation