Abstract
Sexual harassment has become a major social, legal, and mental health problem because of its high prevalence and its negative consequences for victims. These consequences can include decreased productivity, loss of job, decreased income, and impaired psychological and physical well-being. Despite evidence from empirical studies that victims often exhibit posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, some have argued that sexual harassment does not constitute legitimate trauma. We argue that many forms of sexual harassment meet the diagnostic Criteria A1 and A2 of PTSD. Finally, the DSM-IV trauma criterion is explicated, and its relationship with sexual harassment and its effects are discussed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed). Washington, DC: Author.
Andrew, M. J., & Andrew, J. D. (1997). Sexual harassment: The law. Journal of Rehabilitation Administration, 21, 23–42.
Dan, A. J., Pinsof, D. A., & Riggs, L. L. (1995). Sexual harassment as an occupational hazard in nursing. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 17, 563–580.
Dansky, B. S., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (1997). Effects of sexual harassment. In W. O'Donohue (Ed.), Sexual harassment (pp. 152–174). Needham Heights, MA: Viacom.
Ftizgerald, L. F., Drasgow, F., Hulin, C. L., Gelfand, M. J., & Magley, V. J. (1997). Antecendents and consequences of sexual harassment in organizations: A test of an integrated model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 578–589.
Fitzgerald, L. F., Gelfand, M. J., & Drasgow, F. (1995). Measuring sexual harassment: Theoretical and psychometric advances. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 17, 425–445.
Fitzgerald, L. F., Hulin, C. L., & Drasgow, F. (1995). The antecedents and consequences of sexual harassment in organizations: An integrated model. In G. P. Klein & J. J. Hurrell, Jr. (Eds.), Job stress in a changing workforce: Investigating gender, diversity, and family issues (pp. 53–73). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Fitzgerald, L. F., & Shullman, S. L. (1993). Sexual harassment: A research analysis and agenda for the 1990s. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 42, 5–27.
Fitzgerald, L. F., Shullman, S. L., Bailey, N., Richards, M., Swecker, J., Gold, Y., et al. (1988). The incidence and dimensions of sexual harassment in academia and the workplace. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 32, 152–175.
Fitzgerald, L. F., Swan, S., & Fischer, K. (1995). Why didn't she just report him? The psychological and legal implications of women's strategies for responding to sexual harassment. Journal of Social Issues, 51, 117–138.
Fitzgerald, L. F., Swan, S., & Magley, V. J. (1997). But was it really sexual harassment? Legal, behavioral, and psychological definitions of the workplace victimization of women. In W. O'Donohue (Ed.), Sexual harassment (pp. 5–28). Needham Heights, MA: Viacom.
Frances, A., First, M. B., & Pincus, H. A. (1995). DSM-IV guidebook. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
Glomb, T. M., Munson, L. J., Hulin, C. L., Bergman, M. E., & Drasgow, F. (1999). Structural equation models of sexual harassment: Longitudinal explorations and cross-sectional generalizations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 14–28.
Gruber, J. E., & Bjorn, L. (1986). Women's responses to sexual harassment: An analysis of sociocultural, organization, and personal resource models. Social Science Quarterly, 67, 815–826.
Gutek, B. A. (1985). Sex and the workplace: The impact of sexual behavior and harassment on women, men and organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Gutek, B., & Koss, M. P. (1993). Changed women and changed organizations: Consequences of and coping with sexual harassment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 42, 28–48.
Hamilton, J. A., Alagna, S. W., King, L. S., & Lloyd, C. (1987). The emotional consequences of gender-based abuse in the workplace: New counseling programs for sex discrimination. Women and Therapy, 6, 155–182.
Kilpatrick, D. G., Resnick, H. S., Freedy, J. R., Pelcovitz, D., Resick, P. A., Roth, S., et al. (1998). The posttraumatic stress disorder field trial: Evaluation of the PTSD Construct—Criteria A through E. In T. Widiger, A. Frances, H. Pincus, R. Ross, M. First, W. Davis, & M. Kline (Eds.), DSM-IV sourcebook (Vol. 4, pp. 803–844). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
Koss, M. P. (1990). Changed lives: The psychological impact of sexual harassment. In M. Paludi (Ed.), Ivory power: Sex and gender harassment in academia (pp. 73–92). Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
Leeser, J., & O'Donohue, W. (1997). Normative issues in defining sexual harassment. In W. O'Donohue (Ed.), Sexual harassment (pp. 29–49). Needham Heights, MA: Viacom.
Livingston, J. A. (1982). Responses to sexual harassment on the job: Legal, organizational, and individual actions. Journal of Social Issues, 38, 5–22.
Loy, P. H., & Stewart, L. P. (1984). The extent and effects of the sexual harassment of working women. Sociological Focus, 17, 31–43.
Malmquist, C. P. (1996). The use and misuse of psychiatry in sexual harassment cases. Psychiatric Annals, 26, 149–156.
Martindale, M. (1990). Sexual harassment in the military: 1988. Arlington, VA: Defense Manpower Data Center.
Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57, 40 FEP Cases 439 (1986).
Naylor, J. C., Pritchard, R. D., & Ilgen, D. R. (1980). A theory of behavior in organizations. New York: Academic Press.
O'Donohue, W. (1997). Introduction. In W. O'Donohue (Ed.), Sexual harassment (pp. 50–83). Needham Heights, MA: Viacom.
O'Donohue, W., Penix, T. M., & Brunswig, K. (1999). Development and evaluation of a sexual harassment sensitivity and prevention training program: A cognitive approach. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Piotrkowski, C. S. (1998). Gender harassment, job satisfaction, and distress among employed white and minority women. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 3, 33–43.
Pryor, J. B. (1995). The psychosocial impact of sexual harassment on women in the U.S. military. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 17, 581–603.
Pryor, J. B., LaVite, C. M., & Stoller, L. M. (1993). A socialpsychological analysis of sexual harassment: The person/situation interaction. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 42, 68–83.
Schneider, K. T., Swan, S., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1997). Job-related psychological effects of sexual harassment in the workplace: Empirical evidence from two organizations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 401–415.
Simon, R. I. (1996). The credible forensic psychiatric evaluation in sexual harassment litigation. Psychiatric Annals, 26(3), 139–148.
Thacker, R. A., & Gohmann, S. F. (1996). Emotional and psychological consequences of sexual harassment: A descriptive study. Journal of Psychology, 130, 429–446.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title VII, 42 U.S.C. § 2000e et.seq.
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (1980, April). Title 29-Labor, Chapter XIV-Part 1604-Guidelines on discriminating because of sex adoption of interim interpretive guideline. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Vukovich, M. C. (1996). The prevalence of sexual harassment among female family practice residents in the United States. Violence and Victims, 11, 175–180.
Webster's New World College Dictionary (3rd ed.). (1997). New York: Macmillan.
Williams v. Saxbe, 413 F. Supp. 654, 12 FEP Cases 1093 (D.D.C. 1976).
Wolfe, J., Sharkansky, E. J., Read, J. P., Dawson, R., Martin, J. A., & Ouimette, P. C. (1998). Sexual harassment and assault as predictors of PTSD symptomology among U.S. female persian gulf war military personnel. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13, 40–57.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
About this article
Cite this article
Avina, C., O'Donohue, W. Sexual Harassment and PTSD: Is Sexual Harassment Diagnosable Trauma?. J Trauma Stress 15, 69–75 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014387429057
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014387429057