Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Female Juvenile Delinquency: Misunderstood by the Juvenile Justice System, Neglected by Social Science

  • Published:
Law and Human Behavior

Abstract

The study of juvenile delinquency has focused primarily on conduct disorder and aggression in males, while relatively little attention has been paid to females who commit delinquent acts. This article offers a critical review of the existing theories of and research on female delinquency and the juvenile justice system's response to female delinquency. The inadequacies and persistence of historical theories and the conceptual and methodological strengths and weaknesses of contemporary perspectives in female delinquency are reviewed. Understanding and treatment of female and male delinquency could be enhanced through the adoption of a gender-integrated theory of delinquency that is informed by the comprehensive study of developmental, psychological, and social-ecological determinants.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Adler, F. (1975). Sisters in crime. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Austin, R. (1982). Women's liberation and increases in minor, major, and occupational offenses. Criminology, 20, 407–430.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barton, W., & Figueira-McDonough, J. (1985). Attachments, gender, and delinquency. Deviant Behavior, 6, 119–144.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergsmann, I. R. (1989). The forgotten few: Juvenile female offenders. Federal Probation, 53, 73–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowker, L., & Klein, M. (1983). The etiology of female juvenile delinquency and gang membership: A test of psychological and social structure explanations. Adolescence, 18, 739–751.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, S. (1984). Social class, child maltreatment, and delinquent behavior. Criminology, 22, 259–278.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, W. K. (1977). Black female gangs in Philadelphia. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 21, 221–228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butts, J. A., Snyder, H. N., Finnegan, T. A., Augenbaugh, A. L., & Poole, R. S. (1996). Juvenile court statistics 1993. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calhoun, G., Jurgens, J., & Chen, F. (1993). The neophyte female delinquent: A review of the literature. Adolescence, 28, 461–471.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, A. (1987). Self definition by rejection: The case of gang girls. Social Problems, 34, 451–466.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, A. (1990). On the invisibility of the female delinquent peer group. Criminal Justice, 2, 41–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Canter, R. (1982a). Sex differences in self-report delinquency. Criminology, 20, 373–393.

    Google Scholar 

  • Canter, R. (1982b). Family correlates of male and female delinquency. Criminology, 20, 149–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caspi, A., Lynam, D., Moffitt, T., & Silva, P. (1993). Unraveling girls' delinquency: Biological, dispositional, and contextual contributions to adolescent misbehavior. Developmental Psychology, 29, 19–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cernkovich, S., & Giordano, P. (1979). Delinquency, opportunity, and gender. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 70, 145–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cernkovich, S., & Giordano, P. (1987). Family relationships and delinquency. Criminology, 25, 295–319.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cernkovich, S., & Giordano, P. (1992). School bonding, race, and delinquency. Criminology, 30, 261–291.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cernkovich, S., Giordano, P., & Pugh, M. (1985). Chronic offenders: The missing cases in self-report delinquency research. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 76, 705–732.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chamberlain, P., & Reid, J. B. (1994). Differences in risk factors and adjustment for male and female delinquents in treatment foster care. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 3, 23–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chandy, J. M., Blum, R. W., & Resnick, M. D. (1996). Gender-specific outcomes for sexually abused adolescents. Child Abuse and Neglect, 20, 1219–1231.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chesney-Lind, M. (1973). Judicial enforcement of the female sex role: The family court and the female delinquent. Issues in Criminology, 8, 51–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chesney-Lind, M. (1977). Judicial paternalism and the female status offender: Training women to know their place. Crime and Delinquency, 23, 121–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chesney-Lind, M. (1988). Girls in jail. Crime and Delinquency, 34, 150–168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chesney-Lind, M. (1989). Girl's crime and woman's place: Toward a feminist model of female delinquency. Crime and Delinquency, 35, 5–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chesney-Lind, M., & Shelden, R. (1992). Girls: Delinquency and juvenile justice. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, A. (1955). Delinquent boys: The culture of the gang. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cowie, J., Cowie, V., & Slater, E. (1968). Delinquency in girls. London: Heinemann.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curran, D. (1984). The myth of the “new” female delinquent. Crime and Delinquency, 30, 386–399.

    Google Scholar 

  • Datesman, S., & Scarpitti, F. (1975). Female delinquency and broken homes. Criminology, 13, 33–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Datesman, S., & Scarpitti, F. (1977). Unequal protection for males and females in the juvenile court. In T. N. Ferdinand (Ed.), Juvenile delinquency: Little brother grows up (pp. 59–77) Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Datesman, S., Scarpitti, F., & Stephenson, R. (1975). Female delinquency: An application of self and opportunity theories. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 12, 107–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dembo, R., Dertke, M., La Voie, L., Borders, S., Washburn, M., & Schmeidler, J. (1987). Physical abuse, sexual victimization, and illicit drug use: A structural analysis among high risk adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 10, 13–34.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dembo, R., Williams, L., La Voie, L., Berry, E., Getreu, A., Wish, E. D., Schmeidler, J., & Washburn, M. (1989). Physical abuse, sexual victimization, and illicit drug use: Replication of a structure analysis among high risk adolescents. Violence and Victims, 4, 121–138.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dembo, R., Williams, L., & Schmeidler, J. (1993). Gender differences in mental health service needs among youths entering a juvenile detention center. Journal of Prison and Jail Health, 12, 73–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, D. S. (1993). National youth survey (United States): Wave VI, 1983. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, D. S., Wilson, W. J., Huizinga, D., Sampson, R. J., Elliott, A., & Rankin, B. (1996). The effects of neighborhood disadvantage on adolescent development. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 33, 389–426.

    Google Scholar 

  • Empey, L. T. (1982). American delinquency. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Everett, T., & Scherer, D. G. (in press). Children who witness interparental violence: Empirical data and theoretical implications. Aggression and Violent Behavior.

  • Farnworth, M. (1984). Male-female differences in delinquency in a minority group sample. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 21, 191–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Federal Bureau of Investigation. (1993). Crime in the United States. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Figueria-McDonough, J. (1984). Feminism and delinquency. British Journal of Criminology, 24, 325–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • Figueria-McDonough, J. (1992). Community structure and female delinquency rates. Youth and Society, 24, 3–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Figueria-McDonough, J., Barton, W. H., & Sarri, R. C. (1981). Normal deviance: Gender similarities in adolescent subcultures. In M. Q. Warren (Ed.), Comparing female and male offenders (pp. 17–45). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J., Lahey, B. B., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Christ, M. A. G., & Hanson, K. (1992). Familial risk factors to oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder: Parental psychopathology and maternal parenting. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 49–55.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giordano, P. (1978). Girls, guys, and gangs: The changing social context of female delinquency. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 69, 126–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giordano, P., & Cernkovich, S. (1979). On complicating the relationship between liberation and delinquency. Social Problems, 26, 467–481.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giordano, P., Cernkovich, S., & Pugh, M. (1986). Friendships and delinquency. American Journal of Sociology, 5, 1170–1202.

    Google Scholar 

  • Girls Incorporated (1996). Prevention and parity: Girls in juvenile justice. Indianapolis, IN: Girls Incorporated National Resource Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gray, E. (1988). The link between child abuse and juvenile delinquency: What we know and recommendations for policy and research. In G. Hotaling, D. Finkelhor, & M. Strauss (Eds.), Family abuse and it consequences (pp. 109–123). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagan, J., Gillis, A., & Simpson, J. (1985). The class structure of gender and delinquency: Toward a power-control theory of common delinquent behavior. American Journal of Sociology, 90, 1151–1178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagan, J., & Kay, F. (1990). Gender and delinquency in white-collar families: A power-control perspective. Crime and Delinquency, 36, 391–407.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagan, J., Simpson, J., & Gillis, A. (1979). The sexual stratification of social control: A gender based perspective on crime and delinquency. British Journal of Sociology, 30, 25–38.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hagan J., Simpson, J., & Gillis, A. (1987). Class in the household: A power-control theory of gender and delinquency. American Journal of Sociology, 92, 788–816.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagan J., Simpson, J., & Gillis, A. (1988). Feminist scholarship, relational and instrumental control, and a power-control theory of gender and delinquency. British Journal of Sociology, 39, 301–336.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hämäläinen, M., & Pulkkinen, L. (1995). Aggressive and non-prosocial behaviour as precursors of criminality. Studies on Crime and Crime Prevention, 4, 6–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hancock, L., & Chesney-Lind, M. (1982). Female status offenders and justice reforms: An international perspective. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 15, 109–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henggeler, S., Edwards, J., & Borduin, C. (1987). The family relations of female juvenile delinquents. The Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 15, 199–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill, G., & Atkinson, M. (1988). Gender, familial control, and delinquency. Criminology, 26, 127–147.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hindelang, M. J., Hirschi, T., & Weis, J. G. (1981). Measuring delinquency. Beverly Hills: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of delinquency. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz, R., & Pottieger, A. E. (1991). Gender bias in juvenile justice handling of serious crime-involved youths. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 28, 75–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jarjoura, G. R. (1996). The conditional effect of social class on the dropout-delinquency relationship. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 33, 232–255.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, G., & Thompson, K. (1990). What's class got to do with it? A further examination of power-control theory. American Journal of Sociology, 95, 1009–1023.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, D. R., & Scheuble, L. K. (1991). Gender bias in the disposition of juvenile court referrals: The effects of time and location. Criminology, 29, 677–698.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, R. (1986). Family structure and delinquency: General patterns and gender differences. Criminology, 24, 65–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, R. (1987). Mother's versus father's role in causing delinquency. Adolescence, 22, 305–315.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Konopka, G. (1966). The adolescent girl in conflict. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koroki, J., & Chesney-Lind, M. (1985). Everything just going down the drain: Interviews with female delinquents in Hawaii. Report 319. Honolulu, HI: Youth Development and Research Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krohn, M., Curry, J., & Nelson-Kilger, S. (1983). Is chivalry dead? An analysis of changes in police dispositions of males and females. Criminology, 21, 417–437.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kroupa, S. (1988). Perceived parental acceptance and female juvenile delinquency. Adolescence, 23, 171–185.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krueger, R. F., Schmutte, P. S., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Campbell, K., & Silva, P. A. (1994). Personality traits are linked to crime among men and women: Evidence from a birth cohort. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 328–338.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kruttschnitt, C. (1996). Contributions of quantitative methods to the study of gender and crime, or bootstrapping our way into the theoretical thicket. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 12, 135–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombroso, C., & Ferrero, W. (1895). The female offender. New York: Philosophical Library.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCormack, A., Janus, M., & Burgess, A. (1986). Runaway youths and sexual victimization: Gender differences in an adolescent runaway population. Child Abuse and Neglect, 10, 387–395.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morash, M. (1986). Gender, peer group experiences, and seriousness of delinquency. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 23, 43–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morash, M., & Chesney-Lind, M. (1991). A reformulation and partial test of the power control theory of delinquency. Justice Quarterly, 8, 347–376.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mulhern, R. K., & Passman, R. H. (1981). Parental discipline as affected by the sex of the parent, the sex of the child, and the child's apparent responsiveness to discipline. Developmental Psychology, 17, 604–613.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norland, S., Wessel, R., & Shover, N. (1981). Masculinity and delinquency. Criminology, 19, 421–433.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phelps, R. J., McIntosh, M., Jesudason, V., Warner, P., & Pohlkamp, J. (1982). Wisconsin juvenile female offender project. Madison, WI: Youth Policy and Law Center, Wisconsin Council on Juvenile Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poe-Yamagata, E., & Butts, J. A. (1996). Female offenders in the juvenile justice system. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pollak, O. (1950). The criminality of women. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pollak, O., & Freidman, A. S. (Eds.). (1969). Family dynamics and female sexual delinquency. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pope, C., & Feyerherm, W. (1982). Gender bias in juvenile court dispositions. Social Service Research, 6, 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rankin, J. (1980). School factors and delinquency: Interactions by age and sex. Sociology and Social Research, 64, 420–434.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, J. E., & Fischer, K. (1993). Spanning the gender gap: Gender differences in delinquency among inner-city adolescents. Adolescence, 28, 879–889

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robins, L. N. (1986). The consequences of conduct disorder in girls. In D. Olweus, J. Block, & M. Radke-Yarrow (Eds.), Development of antisocial and prosocial behavior: Research, theories, and issues. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbaum, J. L. (1989). Family dysfunction and female delinquency. Crime and Delinquency, 35, 31–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbaum, J. L., & Chesney-Lind, M. (1994). Appearance and delinquency: A research note. Crime and Delinquency, 40, 250–261.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbaum, J., & Lashley, J. R. (1990). School, community context, and delinquency: Rethinking the gender gap. Justice Quarterly, 7, 493–513.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rush, F. (1980). The best kept secret: Sexual abuse of children. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlossman, S., & Wallach, S. (1978). The crime of precocious sexuality: Female delinquency in the progressive era. Harvard Educational Review, 48, 65–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, I. M., Steketee, M. W., & Schneider, V. W. (1990). Federal juvenile justice policy and the incarceration of girls. Crime and Delinquency, 36, 503–520.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seydlitz, R. (1991). The effects of age and gender on parental control and delinquency. Youth and Society, 23, 175–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shelden, R. G. (1981). Sex discrimination in the juvenile justice system: Memphis, Tennessee, 1900–1917. In M. Q. Warren (Ed.), Comparing male and female offenders (pp. 55–72). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Short, J. F., & Strodbeck, F. L. (1965). Group process and gang delinquency. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shover, N., Norland, S., James, J., & Thornton, W. (1979). Gender roles and delinquency. Social Forces, 58, 162–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silbert, M., & Pines, M. (1981). Sexual child abuse as an antecedent to prostitution. Child Abuse and Neglect, 5, 407–411.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simon, R. J., & Landis, J. (1991). The crimes women commit, the punishments they receive. Lexington, MA: Heath.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simons, R., Miller, M., & Aigner, S. (1980). Contemporary theories of deviance and female delinquency: An empirical test. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 17, 42–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simons, R., & Whitbeck, L. (1991). Sexual abuse as a precursor to prostitution and victimization among adolescent and adult homeless women. Journal of Family Issues, 12, 361–379.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singer, S., & Levine, M. (1988). Power-control theory, gender, and delinquency: A partial replication with additional evidence on the effects of peers. Criminology, 26, 627–647.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, D. L. (1980). Young female offenders: Analysis of differential handling based on sex. Pittsburgh, PA: National Center for Juvenile Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, D., & Patternoster, R. (1987). The gender gap in theories of deviance: Issues and evidence. Justice of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 24, 140–172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, H. N. (1996). Juvenile arrests, 1995. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, H. N., & Sickmund, M. (1995). Juvenile offenders and victims: A national report. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, H. N., Sickmund, M., & Poe-Yamagata, E. (1996). Juvenile offenders and victims: 1996 update on violence. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sommers, I., & Baskin, D. R. (1993). The situational context of violent female offending. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 30, 136–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Starrels, M. E. (1994). Gender differences in parent-child relations. Journal of Family Issues, 15, 148–165.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stattin, H., & Magnusson, D. (1989). The role of early aggressive behavior in the frequency, seriousness, and types of later crime. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 710–718.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steffensmeier, D. J., & Steffensmeier, R. (1980). Trends in female delinquency: An examination of arrest, juvenile court, self-report, and field data. Criminology, 18, 62–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sussman, A. (1977). Sex-based discrimination and the PINS jurisdiction. In L. E. Teitelbaum & A. R. Gough (Eds.), Beyond control: Status offenders in the juvenile court (pp. 179–191). Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Teitelbaum, L. E., & Gough, A. R. (Eds.). (1977). Beyond control: Status offenders in the juvenile court. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, W. I. (1928). The unadjusted girl. Boston: Little Brown.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornton, W., & James, J. (1979). Masculinity and delinquency revisited. British Journal of Criminology, 19, 225–241.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tolan, P. (1988). Socioeconomic, family, and social stress correlates of adolescent antisocial and delinquent behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 16, 317–331.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Torstensson, M. (1990). Female delinquents in a birth cohort: Tests of some aspects of control theory. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 6, 101–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tremblay, R. E., Masse, B., Perron, D., Leblanc, M., Schwartzman, A. E., & Ledingham, J. E. (1992). Early disruptive behavior, poor school achievement, delinquent behavior, and delinquent personality: Longitudinal analyses. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 64–72.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Vooris, P., Cullen, F., Mathers, R., & Garner, C. (1988). The impact of family structure and quality on delinquency: A comparative assessment of structural and functional factors. Criminology, 26, 235–261.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vedder, C. B., & Somerville, D. B. (1970). The delinquent girl. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webster-Stratton, C. (1996). Early-onset conduct problems: Does gender make a difference? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 540–551.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weithorn, L. A. (1988). Mental hospitalization of troublesome youth: An analysis of skyrocketing admission rates. Stanford Law Review, 40, 773–838.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wells, L. E., & Rankin, J. H. (1991). Families and delinquency: A meta-analysis of the impact of broken homes. Social Problems, 38, 71–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, J. L., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1989). A prospective replication of the protective effects of IQ in subjects at high risk for juvenile delinquency. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 719–724.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • White, J. W., & Kowalski, R. M. (1994). Deconstructing the myth of the nonaggressive woman: A feminist analysis. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 487–508.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, K., & Wright, K. (1994). Family life, delinquency, and crime: A policymakers guide. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zoccolillo, M. (1993). Gender and the development of conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 65–78.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of South Carolina, USA

    Stephanie Hoyt

  2. College of Education, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131

    David G. Scherer

Authors
  1. Stephanie Hoyt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. David G. Scherer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to David G. Scherer.

About this article

Cite this article

Hoyt, S., Scherer, D.G. Female Juvenile Delinquency: Misunderstood by the Juvenile Justice System, Neglected by Social Science. Law Hum Behav 22, 81–107 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025728822468

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025728822468

Keywords

Search

Navigation