Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Gender Differences in the Effects of Oppositional Behavior on Teacher Ratings of ADHD Symptoms

  • Published:
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

H. Abikoff, M. Courtney, W. E. Pelham, and H. S. Koplewicz (1993) presented elementary school teachers with a videotape of a 4th-grade male child exhibiting behavior associated with either Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) or Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). Comparisons with ratings generated from a control tape (same child exhibiting unremarkable behavior) suggested that oppositional tendencies inflated teacher ratings of ADHD for boys. The term “halo effect” has been used in the literature to refer to the impact of one class of behavior on the perception of another. This study replicated this procedure using identical scripts with both male and female child models. Oppositional behavior was associated with higher teacher ratings of hyperactivity and inattentiveness. Portrayals of behavior associated with ADHD generated higher teacher ratings of oppositional conduct. This bidirectional effect differed in magnitude as a function of child gender. The boy actor exhibiting oppositional behavior received teacher ratings of hyperactivity and inattention that were roughly half of those elicited by his portrayal of ADHD itself. The girl actor portraying ADHD generated oppositional defiant ratings that were roughly two thirds of those elicited from her performance as a child with ODD. These teacher rating tendencies could contribute to higher diagnostic rates of ADHD among boys and ODD among girls. Available epidemiologic data indicate a much higher rate of ADHD among boys and prevalence differentials for ODD (girls initially lower) that disappear by adolescence. Future research will be required to determine the extent to which these teacher response sets generalize to other evaluators such as parents, physicians and mental health professionals.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Abikoff, H., Courtney, M., Pelham, W. E., & Koplewicz, H. S. (1993). Teachers' ratings of disruptive behaviors: The influence of halo effects. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 21, 519-533.

    Google Scholar 

  • Abikoff, H., & Gittleman, R. (1985). The normalizing effects of methylphenidate on the classroom behavior of ADHD children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 13, 33-44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Abikoff, H., Gittleman-Klein, R., & Klein D. F. (1977). Validation of a classroom observation code for hyperactive children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 45, 772-783.

    Google Scholar 

  • Abikoff, H. B., Jensen, P. S., Arnold, E. L., Hoza, B., Hechtman, L., Pollack, S., et al. (2002). Observed classroom behavior of children with ADHD: Relationship to gender and comorbidity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 349-359.

    Google Scholar 

  • Achenbach, T. M. (1991).Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist and Revised Child Behavior Profile. Burlington, VT: University Associates in Psychiatry.

    Google Scholar 

  • Achenbach, T. M., Bird, H. R., Canino, G., Phares, V., Gould, M. S., & Rubio-Stipec, M. (1990). Epidemiological comparisons of Puerto Rican and U.S. mainland Children: Parent, teacher, and self-reports. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 84-93.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1987).Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed., Rev.). Washington, DC: Author.

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2002). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., Text Revision). Washington, DC: Author.

  • Atkins, M. S., Pelham, W. E., & Licht, M. H. (1985). A comparison of objective classroom measures and teacher ratings of attention deficit disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 13, 155-167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atkins, M. S., Pelham, W. E., & Licht, M. H. (1988). The development and validation of objective classroom measures for the assessment of conduct and attention deficit disorders. In R. Prinz (Ed.), Advances in behavioral assessment of children and families (Vol. 4, pp. 3-33). Greenwich CT: JAI Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atkins, M. S., Pelham, W. E., & Licht, M. H. (1989). The differential validity of teacher ratings of inattention/overactivity and aggression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 17, 423-435.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (1998). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauermeister, J. J. (1992). Factor analyses of teacher ratings of attention-deficit hyperactivity and oppositional defiant symptoms in children aged four through thirteen years. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 21, 27-34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brito, G. N. O., Pinto, R. C. A., & Lins, M. F. C. (1995). A behavioral assessment scale for attention deficit disorder in Brazilian children based on DSM-III-R criteria. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23, 509-520.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, C. L., Tamm, L., & Gaub, M. (1997). Gender differences in children with ADHD, ODD, and co-occurring ADHD/ODD identified in a school population. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1706-1714.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conners, C. K. (1969). A teacher rating scale for use in drug studies with children. American Journal of Psychiatry, 126, 884-888.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conners, K. C. (1997). Conners' Rating Scales Revised: Technical manual. New York: Multi-Health Systems.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conners, K. C., Sitarenios, G., Parker, J. D., & Epstein, J. N. (1998). Revision and restandardization of the Conners Teacher Rating Scale (CTRS-R): Factor structure, reliability, and criterion validity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26, 279-291.

    Google Scholar 

  • DuPaul, G. R. (1991). Parent and teacher ratings of ADHD symptoms: Psychometric properties in a community based sample. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 20, 242-253.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaub, M., & Carlson, C. L. (1997). Gender differences in ADHD: A meta-analysis and critical review. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1036-1045.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guilford, J. P. (1954). Psychometric methods (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hinshaw, S. P. (1987). On the distinction between attentional deficits/hyperactivity and conduct problems/aggression in child psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 443-463.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hinshaw, S. P. (2002). Preadolescent girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: I. Background characteristics, comorbidity, cognitive and social functioning, and parenting practices. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 1086-1098.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lambert, N. M., Sandoval, J., & Sassone, D. (1978). Prevalence of hyperactivity in elementary school as a function of social system definers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 43, 446-463.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loney, J., & Milich, R. (1982). Hyperactivity, inattention, and aggression in clinical practice. Advances in Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 3, 113-147.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGee, R., & Feehan, M. (1991). Are girls with problems of attention underrecognized? Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 13, 187-198.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGee, R., Williams, S., & Silva, P. A. (1987). Comparison of girls and boys with teacher-identified problems of attention. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 711-717.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pelham, W. E., Evans, S. W., Gnagy, E. M., & Greenslade, K. E. (1992). Teacher ratings of DSM-III-R symptoms for the disruptive behavior disorders: Prevalence, factor analyses, and conditional probabilities in a special education sample. School Psychology Review, 21, 285-299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pelham, W. E., Gnagy, E. M., Greenslade, K. E., & Milich, R. (1992). Teacher ratings of DSM-III-R symptoms for the disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 210-218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prinz, R. J., Connor, P. A., & Wilson, C. C. (1981). Hyperactive and aggressive behaviors in childhood: Intertwined dimensions. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 9, 191-202.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross, D. M., & Ross, S. A. (1982). Hyperactivity, current issues, research, and theory. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., Tizard, J., & Whitmore, K. (1970). Education, health and behaviour. London: Longmans.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schachar, R., Rutter, M., & Smith, A. (1981). The characteristics of situationally and pervasively hyperactive children: Implications for syndrome definitions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 21, 293-311.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schachar, R., Sandberg, S., & Rutter, M. (1986). Agreement between teachers' ratings and observations of hyperactivity, inattentiveness, and defiance. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 14, 331-345.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaughency, E. A., & Rothlind, J. (1991). Assessment and classification of attention deficit hyperactive disorders. School Psychology Review, 20, 187-202.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skekim, W. O., Kashani, J., Beck, N., Cantwell, D., Martin, J., Rosenberg, J., et al. (1985). The prevalence of attention deficit disorders in a rural midwestern community sample of nine year-old children. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24, 765-770.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, J., Quittner, A. L., & Abikoff, H. (1998). Factors influencing elementary school teacher ratings of ADHD and ODD behaviors. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 406-414.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swanson, J., & Carlson, C. L. (1994). DSM-IV rating scale for ADHD and ODD. Unpublished manuscript.

  • Szatmari, P., Boyle, M. H., & Offord, D. R. (1989). ADHD and conduct disorder: Degreeof diagnostic overlap and differences among correlates. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 865-872.

    Google Scholar 

  • Szatmari, P., Offord, D. R., & Boyle, M. H. (1989). Ontario Child Health Study: Prevalence of attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30, 219-230.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, E., Hepinstall, E., Sonuga-Barke, E., & Sandberg, S. (1998, January). Sex differences in the prevalence of hyperactivity. Paper presented at the annual scientific meeting of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, London.

  • Trites, R. L., Blouin, A. G., & Laprade, K. (1980). Factor analysis of the Conners' Teacher Rating Scale based on a large normative sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 48, 615-621.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trites, R. L., Dugas, E., Lynch, G., & Ferguson, H. B. (1979). Prevalence of hyperactivity. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 4, 179-188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Werner, E., Bierman, J. M., French, F. E., Simonian, K., Connor, A., Smith, R. S., et al. (1968). Reproductive and environmental casualties: A report of the 10-year followup of the children of the Kauai pregnancy study. Pediatrics, 42, 112-127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolraich, M. L., Hannah, J. N., Pinnock, T. Y., Baumgaertel, A., & Brown, J. (1996). Comparison of diagnostic criteria for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in a county-wide sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 319-324.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Psychology Department, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, North Dakota

    David A. Jackson & Alan R. King

Authors
  1. David A. Jackson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Alan R. King
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Jackson, D.A., King, A.R. Gender Differences in the Effects of Oppositional Behavior on Teacher Ratings of ADHD Symptoms. J Abnorm Child Psychol 32, 215–224 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JACP.0000019772.71251.ff

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JACP.0000019772.71251.ff

Search

Navigation