Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Alien invasions in aquatic ecosystems: Toward an understanding of brook trout invasions and potential impacts on inland cutthroat trout in western North America

  • Published:
Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Experience from case studies of biologicalinvasions in aquatic ecosystems has motivated aset of proposed empirical “rules” forunderstanding patterns of invasion and impactson native species. Further evidence is neededto better understand these patterns, andperhaps contribute to a useful predictivetheory of invasions. We reviewed the case ofbrook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)invasions in the western United States andtheir impacts on native cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki). Unlike many biologicalinvasions, a considerable body of empiricalresearch on brook trout and cutthroat trout isavailable. We reviewed life histories of eachspecies, brook trout invasions, their impactson cutthroat trout, and patterns and causes ofsegregation between brook trout and cutthroattrout. We considered four stages of theinvasion process: transport, establishment,spread, and impacts to native species. Most ofthe research we found focused on impacts. Interspecific interactions, especiallycompetition, were commonly investigated andcited as impacts of brook trout. In many casesit is not clear if brook trout invasions have ameasurable impact. Studies of speciesdistributions in the field and a variety ofexperiments suggest invasion success of brooktrout is associated with environmental factors,including temperature, landscape structure,habitat size, stream flow, and humaninfluences. Research on earlier stages ofbrook trout invasions (transport,establishment, and spread) is relativelylimited, but has provided promising insights. Management alternatives for controllingbrook trout invasions are limited, and actions tocontrol brook trout focus on direct removal,which is variably successful and can haveadverse effects on native species. Themanagement applicability of research has beenconfounded by the complexity of the problem andby a focus on understanding processes atsmaller scales, but not on predicting patternsat larger scales. In the short-term, animproved predictive understanding of brooktrout invasions could prove to be most useful,even if processes are incompletely understood. A stronger connection between research andmanagement is needed to identify more effectivealternatives for controlling brook troutinvasions and for identifying managementpriorities.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adams, S.B. (1999) Mechanisms limiting a vertebrate invasion: brook trout in mountain streams of the northwestern USA. Ph.D. Dissertation, The University of Montana, Missoula, MT, 188 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams, S.B., Frissell, C.A. and Rieman, B.E. (2000) Movements of nonnative brook trout in relation to stream channel slope. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 129, 623-638.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams, S.B., Frissell, C.A. and Rieman, B.E. (2001) Geography of invasion in mountain streams: consequences of headwater lake fish introductions. Ecos. 4, 296-307.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams, S.B., Frissell, C.A. and Rieman, B.E. (2002) Changes in distribution of nonnative brook trout in an Idaho drainage over two decades. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 131, 561-568.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allendorf, F.W. and Leary, R.F. (1988) Conservation and distribution of genetic variation in a polytypic species: the cutthroat trout. Conserv. Biol. 2, 170-184.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allendorf, F.W., Bayles, D., Bottom, D.L., Currens, K.P., Frissell, C.A., Hankin, D., Lichatowich, J.A., Nehlsen, W., Trotter, P.C. and Williams, T.H. (1997) Prioritizing Pacific salmon stocks for conservation. Conserv. Biol. 11, 140-152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Angers, B., Bernatchez, L., Angers, A. and Desgroseillers, L. (1995) Specific microsatellite loci for brook charr (Salvelinus fontinalis Mitchill) reveal strong population subdivision on a microgeographic scale. J. Fish. Biol. 47(suppl. A) 177-185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Behnke, R.J. (1992) Native Trout of Western North America. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernardo, J.M. (1998) The logic, value, and necessity for grounding experiments in reality: an essential link in the inferential chain back to nature. In: Resetarits, W.J. Jr. and Bernardo, J.M. (eds.), Experimental Ecology: Issues and Perspectives. Oxford University Press, New York, NY, pp. 370-393.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bettoli, P.W. and Maceina, M.J. (1996) Sampling with toxicants. In: Murphy, B.R. and Willis, D.W. (eds.), Fisheries Techniques, Second Edition. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, MD, pp. 303-333.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bjornn, T.C. and Reiser, D.W. (1991) Habitat requirements for salmonids in streams. In: Meehan, W.R. (ed.), Influences of Forest and Rangeland Management on Salmonid Fishes and their Habitats. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, MD, pp. 83-138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourke, P., Magnan, P. and Rodriguez, M.A. (1996) Diel locomotor activity of brook charr, as determined by radiotelemetry. J. Fish. Biol. 49, 1174-1185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bozek, M.A. and Hubert, W.A. (1992) Segregation of resident trout in streams as predicted by three habitat dimensions. Can. J. Zool. 70, 886-890.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buktenica, M.W. (1997) Bull trout restoration and brook trout eradication at Crater Lake National Park, Oregon. In: Mackay, W.C., Brewin, M.K. and Monita, M. (eds.), Friends of the Bull Trout Conference Proceedings. The Bull Trout Task Force (Alberta), Calgary, Alberta, pp. 127-135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buys, D. (2002) Competition between Bonneville cutthroat trout and brook trout in laboratory and field experiments. M.S. Thesis, Utah State University, Logan, UT, 108 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byers, J.E. and Goldwasser, L. (2001) Exposing the mechanism and timing of impact of nonindigenous species on native species. Ecology 82, 1330-1343.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlton, J.T. (1996) Pattern, process, and prediction in marine invasion ecology. Biol. Conserv. 78, 97-106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cavallo, B.J. (1997) Floodplain habitat heterogeneity and the distribution, abundance and behavior of fishes and amphibians in the Middle Fork Flathead River Basin, Montana. M.S. Thesis, The University of Montana, Missoula, MT, 128 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chisholm, I.M. and Hubert, W.A. (1986) Influence of stream gradient on standing stock of brook trout in the Snowy Range, Wyoming. Northwest Sci. 60, 137-139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Claudi, R. and Leach, J. (eds.) (1999) Non-indigenous Freshwater Organisms: Vectors, Biology and Impacts. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, S.D., Diehl, S., Kratz, K. and Sarnelle, O. (1998) Implications of scale for patterns and processes in stream ecology. Aust. J. Ecol. 23, 27-40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crowder, L.B. (1990) Community ecology. In: Schreck, C. and Moyle, P.B. (eds.), Methods in Fish Biology. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, MD, pp. 607-629.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crowl, T.A., Townsend, C.R. and McIntosh, A.R. (1992) The impact of introduced brown and rainbow trout on native fish: the case of Australasia. Rev. Fish Biol. Fish. 2, 217-241.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunjak, R.A., Prowse T.D. and Parrish, D.L. (1998) Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in winter: the season of parr discontent? Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 55(Suppl. 1), 161-180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Currens, K.P., Hemmingson, A.R., French, R.A., Buchanan, D.V. Schreck, C.B. and Li, H.W. (1997) Introgression and susceptibility to disease in a wild population of rainbow trout. N. Am. J. Fish. Manage. 17, 1065-1078.

    Google Scholar 

  • D'Antonio, C.M. (1993) Mechanisms controlling invasion of coastal plant communities by the alien succulent Carpobrotus edulis. Ecology 74, 83-95.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeMarais, B.D., Dowling, T.E. and Minckley, W.L. (1993) Post-perturbation genetic changes in populations of endangered Virgin River chubs. Conserv. Biol. 7, 334-341.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeStaso, J. III and Rahel, F.J. (1994) Influence of water temperature on interactions between juvenile Colorado River cutthroat trout and brook trout in a laboratory stream. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 123, 289-297.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duff, D.A. (ed.) (1996) Conservation Assessment for Inland Cutthroat Trout Status and Distribution. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Region, Ogden, UT, 120 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunne, T. and Leopold, L.B. (1978) Water in Environmental Planning. W.H. Freeman, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunham, J.B., Vinyard, G.L. and Rieman, B.E. (1997) Habitat fragmentation and extinction risk of Lahontan cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki henshawi). N. Am. J. Fish. Manage. 17, 910-917.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunham, J.B., Peacock, M.M., Rieman, B.E., Schroeter, R.E. and Vinyard, G.L. (1999) Local and geographic variability in the distribution of stream-living Lahontan cutthroat trout. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 128, 875-889.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunham, J., Rahn, M., Schroeter, R. and Breck, S. (2000) Diet selection by sympatric Lahontan cutthroat trout and brook trout: implications for species interactions. West. N. Am. Nat. 60, 304-310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunham, J.B., Young, M.K., Gresswell, R. and Rieman, B.E. (2003). Effects of fire on fish populations: landscape perspectives on persistence of native fishes and non-native fish invasions. For. Ecol. Manage. 178, 183-196. Available from the internet URL http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise

    Google Scholar 

  • Erman, D.C., Andrews, E.D. and Yoder-Willams, M. (1988) Effects of winter floods on fishes in the Sierra Nevada. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 45, 2195-2200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fausch, K.D. (1988) Tests of competition between native and introduced salmonids in streams: what have we learned? Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 45, 2238-2246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fausch, K.D. (1989) Do gradient and temperature affect distribution of, and interactions between juvenile brook char and other salmonids in streams? Physiol. Ecol. Jap. Spec. Vol. 1, 303-322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fausch, K.D., Nakano, S. and Ishigaki, K. (1994) Distribution of two congeneric charrs in streams of Hokkaido Island, Japan: considering multiple factors across scales. Oecologia 100, 1-12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fausch, K.D., Taniguchi Y., Nakano, S., Grossman G.D. and Townsend, C.R. (2001) Flood disturbance regimes influence rainbow trout invasion success among five holoarctic regions. Ecol. Appl. 11, 1438-1455.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finlayson, B.J., Schnick, R.A., Cailteux, R.L., DeMong, L., Horton, W.D., McClay, W., Thompson, C.W. and Tichaceck, G.J. (2000) Rotenone Use in Fisheries Management: Administrative and Technical Guidelines Manual. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuller, P.L., Nico, L.G. and Williams, J.D. (1999) Nonindigenous Fishes Introduced into Inland Waters of the United States. American Fisheries Society Special Publication Number 27.

  • Gowan, C. and Fausch, K.D. (1996) Mobile brook trout in two high-elevation Colorado streams: re-evaluating the concept of restricted movement. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 53, 1370-1381.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, J.W.A. and Kramer, D.L. (1990) Territory size as a predictor of the upper limit to population density of juvenile salmonids in streams. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 47, 1724-1737.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, J.W.A., Steingrímmson, S.Ó., Keeley, E.R. and Cunjak, R.A. (1998) Implications of territory size for the measurement and prediction of salmonid abundance in streams. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 55(Suppl. 1), 181-190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gregory, J.S. and Griffith, J.S. (2000) First-winter survival of caged wild and hatchery cutthroat trout in allopatry and sympatry with brook trout. Intermountain J. Sci. 6, 217-222.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gresswell, R.E. (ed.) (1988) Status and Management of Cutthroat Trout. American Fisheries Society Symposium 4, Bethesda, Maryland.

  • Gresswell, R.E. (1991) Use of antimycin for removal of brook trout from a tributary of Yellowstone Lake. N. Am. J. Fish. Manage. 11, 83-90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gresswell, R.E., Liss, W.J. and Larson, G.L. (1994) Life-history organization of Yellowstone cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki bouvieri) in Yellowstone Lake. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 51(Suppl. 1), 298-309.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffith, J.S. (1972) Comparative behavior and habitat utilization of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and cutthroat trout (Salmo clarki) in small streams in northern Idaho. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 29, 265-273.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffith, J.S. (1988) Review of competition between cutthroat trout and other salmonids. In: Gresswell, R.E. (ed.), Status and Management of Cutthroat Trout. American Fisheries Society Symposium 4, Bethesda, MD, pp. 134-140.

  • Harig, A.L., Fausch, K.D. and Young, M.K. (2000) Factors influencing success of greenback cutthroat trout translocations. N. Am. J. Fish. Manage. 20, 994-1004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hilderbrand, R.H. (1998) Movements and conservation of cutthroat trout. Ph.D. Dissertation, Utah State University, Logan, UT, 135 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hubert, W.A. and Kozel, S.J. (1993) Quantitative relations of physical habitat features to channel slope and discharge in unaltered mountain streams. J. Freshwat. Ecol. 8, 177-183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Irving, D.B. (1987) Cutthroat trout abundance, potential yield, and interaction with brook trout in Priest Lake tributaries. M.S. Thesis, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, 225 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Isaak, D.J. and Hubert, W.A. (2001) Are trout populations affected by reach-scale stream slope? Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 57, 468-477.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keeley, E.R. (2001) Demographic responses to food and space competition by juvenile steelhead trout. Ecology 82, 1247-1259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knapp, R.A., Corn, P.S. and Schindler, D.E. (2001) Fish stocking impacts to mountain lake ecosystems. Ecos. 4, 275-278.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolar, C.S. and Lodge, D.M. (2000) Freshwater nonindigenous species: interactions with other global changes. In: Mooney, H.A. and Hobbs, R.J. (eds.), Invasive Species in a Changing World. Island Press, Washington, D.C., pp. 3-30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolar, C. and Lodge, D.M. (2001) Progress in invasion biology: predicting invaders. Trends Ecol. Evol. 16, 199-204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kozel, S.J. and Hubert, W.A. (1989) Factors influencing the abundance of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) in forested mountain streams. J. Freshwat. Ecol. 5, 113-122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruse, C.G., Hubert, W.A. and Rahel, F.J. (2001) An assessment of headwater isolation as a conservation strategy for cutthroat trout in the Absaroka Mountains of Wyoming. Northwest Sci. 75, 1-11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Latterell, J.J., Fausch, K.D., Gowan, C. and Riley, S.C. (1998) Relationship of trout recruitment to snowmelt runoff flows and adult trout abundance in six Colorado mountain streams. Rivers 6, 240-250.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leary, R.F., Allendorf, F.W. and Forbes, S.H. (1993) Conservation genetics of bull trout in the Columbia and Klamath River drainages. Conserv. Biol. 7, 856-865.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacPhee, C. (1966) Influence of differential angling mortality and stream gradient on fish abundance in a trout-sculpin biotope. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 95, 381-387.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manly, B.F.J. (1992) The Design and Analysis of Research Studies. Cambridge University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marchand, F. and Boisclair, D. (1998) Influence of fish density on the energy allocation pattern of juvenile brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 55, 796-805.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCracken, G.F., Parker, C.R. and Guffey, S.Z. (1993) Genetic differentiation and hybridization between stocked hatchery and native brook trout in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 122, 533-542.

    Google Scholar 

  • McFadden, J.T. (1961) A population study of the brook trout. Wildl. Monog. 7, 1-73.

    Google Scholar 

  • McFadden, J.T., Alexander, G.R. and Shetter, D.S. (1967) Numerical changes and population regulation in brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 24, 1425-1459.

    Google Scholar 

  • McIntosh, A.R. (2000) Habitat-and size-related variations in exotic trout impacts on native galaxiid fishes in New Zealand streams. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 57, 2140-2151.

    Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre, J.D. and Rieman, B.E. (1995) Westlope cutthroat trout. In: Young, M.K. (ed.), Conservation Assessment for Inland Cutthroat Trout. U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report RM-GTR-256, Fort Collins, CO, pp. 1-15.

  • Mesa, M.G., Poe, T.P., Maule, A.G. and Schreck, C.B. (1998) Vulnerability to predation and physiological stress responses in juvenile chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) experimentally infected with Renibacterium salmoninarum. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 55, 1599-1606

    Google Scholar 

  • Minckley, W.L. and Deacon, J.E. (1991) Battle Against Extinction: Native Fish Management in the American West. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Montana Bull Trout Scientific Group (1996) Assessment of Methods for Removal and Suppression of Introduced Fish to Aid in Bull Trout Recovery. Montana Fish, Wildlife, and Parks, Helena, Montana.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, S.E., Ridley, B. and Larson, G.L. (1983) Standing crops of brook trout concurrent with removal of rainbow trout from selected streams in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. N. Am. J. Fish. Manage. 3, 72-80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moyle, P.B. and Light, T. (1996) Biological invasions of fresh water: empirical rules and assembly theory. Biol. Conserv. 78, 149-161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nakano, S., Kitano, S., Nakai, K. and Fausch, K.D. (1998) Competitive interactions for foraging microhabitat among introduced brook charr, Salvelinus fontinalis, and native bull charr, S. confluentus, and westslope cutthroat trout, Oncorhynchus clarki lewisi, in a Montana stream. Environ. Biol. Fishes 52, 345-355.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Research Council (U.S.) Committee on Protection and Management of Pacific Northwest Anadromous Salmonids (1996) Upstream: Salmon and Society in the Pacific Northwest. National Academy Press, Washington D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Northcote, T.G. (1995) Confessions from a four decade affair with Dolly Varden: a synthesis and critique of experimental tests for interactive segregation between Dolly Varden char (Salvelinus malma) and cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki) in British Columbia. Nordic J. Freshwat. Res. 71, 49-67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Novinger, D.C. (2000) Reversals in competitive ability: do cutthroat trout have a thermal refuge from competition with brook trout? Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, 124 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Novinger, D.C. and Rahel, F.J. (2003) Isolation management with artificial barriers as a conservation strategy for cutthroat trout in headwater streams. Conserv. Biol. 17, 772-781.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ovenden, J.R., Bywater, R. and White, R.W.G. (1993) Mitochondrial DNA nucleotide sequence variation in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), brown trout (S. trutta), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) from Tasmania, Australia. Aquaculture 114, 217-227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parker, I.M., Simberloff, D., Lonsdale, W.M., Goodell, K. Wonham, M., Kareiva, P.M., Williamson, M.H., Von Holle, B., Moyle, P.B., Byers, J.E. and Goldwasser, L. (1999) Impact: toward a framework for understanding the ecological effects of invaders. Biolog. Invasions 1, 3-19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paul, A.J. (2000) Recruitment dynamics in bull trout (Salvelinus confluentus): linking theory and data to species management. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, 259 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paul, A.J. and Post, J.R. (2001) Spatial distribution of native and nonnative salmonids in streams of the eastern slopes of the Canadian Rocky Mountains. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 130, 417-430.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, D. (2002) Population ecology of an invasion: demography, dispersal and the effects of nonnative brook trout on native cutthroat trout. Ph.D. Dissertation, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 213 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Polhemus, D.A. (1993) Conservation of aquatic insects: worldwide crisis or localized threats? Am. Zool. 33, 588-598.

    Google Scholar 

  • Power, G. (1980) The brook charr, Salvelinus fontinalis. In: Balon, E.K. (ed.), Charrs, Salmonid Fishes of the Genus Salvelinus. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague, Netherlands, pp. 141-203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rahel, F.J. (2002) Homogenization of freshwater faunas. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 33, 291-315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reimers, N. (1979) A history of a stunted brook trout population in an alpine lake: a lifespan of 24 years. Calif. Fish Game 65, 196-215.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rieman, B.E., Dunham, J.B. and Peterson, J.T. (1999) Development of a database to support a multi-scale analysis of the distribution of westslope cutthroat trout. U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia 20192 Available at http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise

    Google Scholar 

  • Rieman, B.E. and Dunham, J.B. (2000) Metapopulations and salmonid fishes: a synthesis of life history patterns and empirical observations. Ecol. Freshwat. Fish 9, 51-64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rieman, B.E., Dunham, J.B. and Clayton, J.L. (2003) Emerging concepts for management of river ecosystems and challenges to applied integration of physical and biological sciences in the Pacific Northwest, USA. Proceedings of a NATO Advanced Research Workshop on New Paradigms in River and Estuary Management (in press). Available at http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/boise

  • Rinne, J.N. and Turner, P.R. (1991) Reclamation and alteration as management techniques, and a review of methodology in stream renovation. In: Minckley, W.L. and Deacon, J.E. (eds.), Battle Against Extinction: Native Fish Management in the American West. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ, pp. 219-243.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rinne, J.N. (1996) Short-term effects of wildfire on fishes and aquatic macroinvertebrates in the southwestern United States. N. Am. J. Fish. Manage. 16, 653-658.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sakai, A.K., Allendorf, F.W., Holt, J.S., Lodge, D.M., Molofsky, J., With, K.A., Baughman, S., Cabin, R.J., Cohen, J.E., Ellstrand, N.C., McCauley, D.E., O'Neil, P., Parker, I.M., Thompson, J.N. and Weller, S.G. (2001) The population biology of invasive species. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 32, 305-332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schroeter, R.E. (1998) Segregation of stream dwelling Lahontan cutthroat trout and brook trout: patterns of occurrence and mechanisms for displacement. M.S. Thesis, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, 93 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seegrist, D.W. and Gard, R. (1972) Effects of floods on trout in Sagehen Creek, California. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 101, 478-482.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shepard, B.B., Spoon, R. and Nelson, L. (2003) A native westslope cutthroat trout population responds positively after brook trout removal and habitat restoration. Intermountain J. Sci. (in press).

  • Shetter, D.S. (1968) Observations on movements of wild trout in two Michigan stream drainages. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 97, 472-480.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stelfox, J.D., Baayens, D.M., Paul, A.J. and Shumaker, G. (2001) Quirk Creek brook trout suppression project. In: Brewin, M.K., Paul A.J. and Monita, M. (eds.), Bull Trout II Conference Proceedings. Trout Unlimited Canada, Calgary, Alberta, pp. 37-46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, J.E. (1991) Introductions as factors in diseases of fish and aquatic invertebrates. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 48, 110-117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strange, E.L., Moyle, P.B. and Foin, T.D. (1992) Interactions between stochastic and deterministic processes in stream fish community assembly. Environ. Biol. Fish. 36, 1-15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taniguchi, Y. and Nakano, S. (2000) Condition-specific competition: implications for the altitudinal distribution of stream fishes. Ecology 81, 2027-2039.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, J.N., Courtenay, W.R. and McCann, J.A. (1984) Known impacts of exotic fishes in the continental United States. In: Courtenay W.R. Jr. and Stauffer, J.R. (eds.), Distribution, Biology, and Management of Exotic Fishes. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD, pp. 322-373.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, H.M. (1996) Competitive interactions between a native and exotic trout species in high mountain streams. M.S. Thesis, Utah State University, Logan, UT, 44 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, P.D. and Rahel, F.J. (1996) Evaluation of depletion-removal electrofishing of brook trout in small Rocky Mountain streams. N. Am. J. Fish. Manage. 16, 332-339.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, P.D. and Rahel, F.J. (1998) Evaluation of artificial barriers in small Rocky Mountain streams for preventing the upstream movement of brook trout. N. Am. J. Fish. Manage. 18, 206-210.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thurow, R.F. (1997) Habitat utilization and diel behavior of juvenile bull trout (Salvelinus confluentus) at the onset of winter. Ecol. Freshwater Fish 6, 1-7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trotter, P.C. (1987) Cutthroat: Native Trout of the West. Colorado Associated University Press, Boulder, CO, 219 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Welcomme, R.L. (1988) International Introductions of Inland Aquatic Species. United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome, Italy, 318 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, M. and Fritter, A. (1996) The varying success of invaders. Ecology 77, 1661-1666.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, M.K. (ed.) (1995) Conservation Assessment for Inland Cutthroat Trout. U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report RM-256. Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, CO, 61 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, M.K., Micek, B.K. and Rathbun, M. (2003) Probable pheromonal attraction of sexually mature brook trout to mature male conspecifics. N. Am. J. Fish. Manage. 23, 276-282.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, 316 E. Myrtle St., Boise, ID, 83702, USA

    Jason B. Dunham

  2. U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Southern Research Station, 1000 Front St., Oxford, MS, 38655, USA

    Susan B. Adams

  3. Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology, University of California, Davis, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95615, USA

    Robert E. Schroeter

  4. Missouri Department of Conservation, Conservation Research Center, 1110 South College Ave., Columbia, MO, 65201, USA

    Douglas C. Novinger

Authors
  1. Jason B. Dunham
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Susan B. Adams
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Robert E. Schroeter
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Douglas C. Novinger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Dunham, J.B., Adams, S.B., Schroeter, R.E. et al. Alien invasions in aquatic ecosystems: Toward an understanding of brook trout invasions and potential impacts on inland cutthroat trout in western North America. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 12, 373–391 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025338203702

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025338203702

Search

Navigation