Abstract
Few effective psychosocial treatment models for depressed adolescents have been developed, let alone ones that use the developmentally potent context of the family as the focus of intervention. Attachment-based family therapy (ABFT) is a brief, manualized treatment model tailored to the specific needs of depressed adolescents and their families. Attachment theory serves as the main theoretical framework to guide the process of repairing relational ruptures and rebuilding trustworthy relationships. Empirically supported risk factors for depression are the primary problem states that therapists target with specific treatment strategies or tasks. Parent problem states include criticism/hostility, personal distress, parenting skills, and disengagement. Adolescent problem states include motivation, negative self-concept, poor affect regulation, and disengagement. Intervention tasks include relational reframing, building alliances with the adolescent and with the parent, addressing attachment failures, and building competency. A small, randomized clinical trial provides initial support for the model. Several process research studies, using both qualitative and quantitative methods, have helped refine the clinical guidelines for each treatment task. ABFT is a promising new treatment for depressed adolescents and more research on it is warranted.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/4–18 and 1991 profile. Burlington, University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1989). Attachment beyond infancy. American Psychologist, 44, 709-716.
Alexander, P. C. (1993). Application of attachment theory to the study of sexual abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 185-195.
Allen, J. P., Hauser, S. T., & Borman-Spurrell, E. (1996). Attachment theory as a framework for understanding sequelae of severe adolescent psychopathology: An 11-year follow-up study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(2), 254-263.
Allen, J. P., & Land, D. (1999). Attachment in adolescence. In J. Cassidy and P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications(pp. 319-335). New York: Guilford Press.
Altmann, E. O., & Gotlib, I. H. (1988). The social behavior of depressed children: An observational study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 16, 29-44.
Amanat, E., & Butler, C. (1984). Oppressive behaviors in the families of depressed children. Family Therapy, 11(1), 65-77.
Armsden, G. C., & Greenberg, M. T. (1987). The inventory of parent and peer attachment: Relationships to well-being in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16, 427-454.
Asarnow, J. R., Carlson, G. A., & Guthrie, D. (1987). Coping strategies, self-perceptions, hopelessness, and perceived family environments in depressed and suicidal children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 361-366.
Asarnow, J. R., Goldstein, M. J., Tompson, M., & Guthrie, D. (1993). One-year outcomes of depressive disorders in child psychiatric in-patients: Evaluation of the prognostic power of a brief measure of expressed emotion. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 129-137.
Barber, B. K. (Ed.). (2002). How psychological control affects children and adolescents. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Bartholomew, K., & Horowitz, L. (1991). Attachment styles among young adults: A test of a four-category model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 226-244.
Baumrind, D. (1987) Developmental perspectives on adolescent risk-taking in contemporary America. In C. E. Irwin (Ed.), Adolescent social behavior and health(pp. 93-125). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competency and substance abuse. Journal of Adolescence, 11, 56-95.
Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Clinical, experimental, and theoretical aspects. New York: Harper & Row.
Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York: Guilford Press.
Belsky, J. (1984). The determinants of parenting: A process model. Child Development, 55, 83-96.
Benjamin, L. S. (1974). Structural analysis of social behavior. Psychological Review, 81(5), 392-425.
Benjamin, L. S. (1984). Principles of prediction using structural analysis of social behavior. In R. A. Zucker, J. Aronoff, & A. J. Rabin (Eds.), Personality and the prediction of behavior(pp. 121-173). New York: Academic Press.
Birmaher, B., Brent, D. A., Kolko, D., Baugher, M., Bridge, J., Holder, D., et al., (2000). Clinical outcome after short-term psychotherapy for adolescents with major depressive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57(1), 29-36.
Birmaher, B., Ryan, N., Williamson, D., Brent, D., & Kaufman, J. (1996). Childhood and adolescent depression: A review of the past 10 years, Part I. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(11), 1427-1439.
Bordin, E. S. (1979). The generalizability of the psychoanalytic concept of the working alliance. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and Practice, 16, 252-260.
Boszormenyi-Nagy, I., & Krasner, B. R. (1986). Trust-based therapy: A contextual approach. American Journal of Psychiatry, 137, 767-775.
Boszormenyi-Nagy, I., & Sparks, G. M. (1984). Invisible loyalties. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
Bowlby, J. (1969). Disruption of affectional bonds and its effects on behavior. Canada's Mental Health Supplement, 59, 12.
Bowlby, J. A. (1988). A secure base: Parent–child attachment and healthy human development. New York: Basic Books.
Brent, D. A., Holder, D., Kolko, D., Brimaher, B., Baugher, M., Roth, C., et al. (1997). A clinical psychotherapy trial for adolescent depression comparing cognitive, family, and supportive treatments. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 877-885.
Brent, D. A., Perper, J. A., Goldstein, C. E., Kolko, D. J., Allen, M.J., Allman, C. J., et al. (1988). Risk factors for adolescent suicide: A comparison of adolescent suicide victims with suicidal inpatients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 581-588.
Burbach, D. J., & Borduin, C. M. (1986). Parent–child relations and the etiology of depression: A review of methods and findings. Clinical Psychology Review, 6, 133-153.
Cicchetti, D., & Greenberg, M. T. (1991). The legacy of John Bowlby. Development and Psychopathology, 3, 347-350.
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (1998). The development of depression in children and adolescents. American Psychologist, 53(2), 221-241.
Cicchetti, D., Toth, S. L., & Lynch, M. (1995). Bowlby's dream comes full circle: The application of attachment theory to risk and psychopathology. Advances in Clinical Child Psychology, 17, 1-75.
Clarke, G. N, Rohde, P., Lewinsohn, P. M., Hops, H., & Seeley, J. R. (1999). Cognitive–behavioral treatment of adolescent depression: Efficacy of acute group treatment and booster sessions. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(3), 272-279.
Cole, D. A. (1990). Relation of social and academic competency to depressive symptoms in childhood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99(4), 422-429.
Cole, D. A., & Rehm, L. P. (1986). Family interaction patterns and childhood depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 14, 297-314.
Cole-Detke, H., & Kobak, R. (1996). Attachment processes in eating disorder and depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(2), 282-290.
Coyne, J. C. (1976). Toward an interactional description of depression. Psychiatry, 39, 28-40.
Coyne, J. C., Downey, G., & Boergers, J. (1990). Depression in families: A systems perspective. In D. Cicchetti & S. Toth (Eds.), Rochester symposium on developmental psychopathology Vol. 4. Developmental approaches to the affective disorders(pp. 211-249). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. (1994). Children and marital conflict. New York: Guilford Press.
Dadds, M. R., Schwartz, S., & Schwartz, M. R. (1987). Marital discord and treatment outcome in behavioral treatment of child conduct disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 396-403.
Derogatis, L. R., & Melisaratos, N. (1983). The Brief Symptom Inventory: An introductory report. Psychological Medicine, 13(3), 595-605.
Diamond, G. S., & Diamond, G. M. (1999). Studying mechanisms of change: A process research agenda for family-based treatments. In H. Liddle, R. Leant, & J. Bray (Eds.), Family psychology intervention science(pp. 41-65). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Press.
Diamond, G. M., Diamond, G. S. & Liddle, H. A. (2000). The therapist–parent alliance in relationally based family therapy for adolescents. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 6(8), 1037-1050.
Diamond, G. M., Hogue, A., Diamond, G. S., & Siqueland, L. (1998). Therapist behavior rating scale for attachment based family therapy. Unpublished manuscript.
Diamond, G. S., & Liddle, H. A. (1996). Resolving therapeutic impasses between parents and adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 481-488.
Diamond, G. S., & Liddle, H. A. (1999). Transforming negative parent–adolescent interactions in family therapy: From impasse to dialogue. Family Process, 38, 5-26.
Diamond, G. M., Liddle, H. A., Hogue, A., & Dakof, G. A. (1998). Therapist alliance building techniques with adolescents in multidimensional family therapy. Paper presented at the 1998 Meeting of the North American Society for Psychotherapy Research, Santa Fe, NM.
Diamond, G. M., Moed, H., Diamond, G. S., & Shelef, K. Building alliances with parents in family therapy: A task analytic study. Unpublished manuscript.
Diamond, G. S., Reis, B., Diamond, G. M., Siqueland, L., & Isaacs, L. (2002). Attachment based family therapy for depressed adolescents: A treatment development study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 1190-1196.
Diamond, G. S., & Siqueland, L. (1998). Emotions, attachment and the relational reframe. Journal of Structural and Strategic Therapy, 17, 36-50.
Diamond, G. S., & Stern, R. (2003). Attachment based family therapy for depressed adolescents: Repairing attachment by addressing attachment failures. In Johnson, S. (Ed.), Attachment: A family systems perspective. New York: Guilford Press.
Doane, J. A., West, K. L., Goldstein, M. J., Rodnick, E. H., & Jones, J. E. (1981). Parental affective style and communication deviance as predictors of subsequent schizophrenia spectrum disorders in vulnerable adolescents. Archives of General Psychiatry, 38, 679-685.
Donenberg, G. R., & Weisz, J. R. (1998). Guilt and abnormal aspects of parent–child interactions. In J. Bybee, (Ed.), Guilt and children(pp. 245-267). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Downey, G., & Coyne, J. C. (1990). Children of depressed parents: An integrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 50-76.
Egeland, B., Jacobvitz, D., & Sroufe, L. A. (1988). Breaking the cycle of abuse. Child Development, 59(4), 1080-1088.
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., & Murphy, B. C. (1996). Parents' reactions to children's negative emotions: Relations to children's social competence and comforting behavior. Child Development, 67(5), 2227-2247.
Elliot, R. (1984). A discovery-oriented approach to significant change events in psychotherapy: Interpersonal process recall and comprehensive process analysis. In L. A. Rice & L. S. Greenberg (Eds.), Patterns of change(pp. 249-286). New York: Guilford Press.
Emslie, G. J., Heiligenstein, J. H., Wagner, K. D., Hoog, S. L., Ernest, D. E., Brown, E., et al. (2002). Fluoxetine for acute treatment of depression in children and adolescents: A placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(10), 1205-1215.
Emslie, G. J., Rush, J., Weinberg, W. A., Kowatch, R. A., Hughes, C. W., Carmody, T., et al. (1997). A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of fluoxetine in children and adolescents with depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54(11), 1031-1037.
Emslie, G. J., Walkup, J. T., Pliszka, S. R., & Ernst, M. (1999). Nontricyclic antidepressants: Current trends in children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(5), 517-528.
Enright, R. D., and Santos, M. J., & Al-Mabuk, R. (1989). The adolescent as forgiver. Journal of Adolescence, 12(1), 95-110.
Faber, A., & Mazlish, E. (1980). How to talk so kids will listen and listen so kids will talk. New York: Avon Books.
Feather, N. J. (1983). Causal attributions and beliefs about work and unemployment among adolescents in state and independent secondary schools. Australian Journal of Psychology, 35, 211-232.
Fendrich, M., Warner, V., & Weissman, M. M. (1990). Family risk factors, parental depression, and psychopathology in offspring. Developmental Psychology, 26, 40-50.
Fincham, F. D., & Bradbury, T. N. (1988). The impact of attributions in marriage: Empirical and conceptual foundations. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27, 77-90.
Friedlander, M. L., & Heatherington, L. (1998). Assessing clients' constructions of their problems in family therapy discourse. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 24(3), 289-303.
Gallimore, M., & Kurdek, L. A. (1992). Parent depression and parent authoritative discipline as correlates of young adolescents' depression. Journal of Early Adolescence, 12(2), 187-196.
Garber, J., Keiley, M. K., & Martin, N. C. (2002). Developmental trajectories of adolescent's depressive symptoms: Predictors of change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(1), 79-95.
Gardner, R., & Price, J. S. (1999). Sociophysiology and depression. In T. Joiner and J. C. Coyne (Eds.), The interactional nature of depression(pp. 247-268). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Gilboa, E., & Gotlib, I. H. (1997). Cognitive biases and affect persistence in previously dysphoric and never-dysphoric individuals. Cognition and Emotion, 11, 517-538.
Gladstone, T. R., & Beardslee, W. R. (2002). Treatment, intervention, and prevention with children of depressed parents: A developmental perspective. In S. H. Goodman & I. H. Gotlib (Eds.), Children of Depressed Parents: Mechanism of risk & implications for treatment(pp. 277-306). American Psychological Association: Washington DC.
Goodman, S. H. & Brumley, H. E. (1990). Schizophrenic and depressed mothers: Relational deficits in parenting. Developmental Psychology, 26(1), 31-39.
Goodman, S. H., & Gotlib, I. H. (Eds.). (2002). Children of depressed parents. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Goodyer, I. M., Herbert, J., Tamplin, A., Secher, S. M., & Pearson, J. (1997). Short-term outcome of major depression: II. Life events, family dysfunction, and friendship difficulties as predictors of persistent disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(4), 474-480.
Gordon, K. C., & Baucom, D. H. (1998). Understanding betrayals in marriage: A synthesized model of forgiveness. Family Process, 37(4), 425-449.
Gotlib, I., & Hammen, C. (1992). Psychological aspects of depression: Towards a cognitive-interpersonal integration. Winchester, England: Wiley.
Gottman, J. M., Katz, L. F., & Hooven, C. (1996). Parental meta-emotion philosophy and the emotional life of families: Theoretical models and preliminary data. Journal of Family Psychology, 10(3), 243-268.
Greenberg, L. S., & Johnson, S. M. (1988). Emotionally focused therapy for couples. New York: Guilford Press.
Greenberg, L. S., & Pinsoff, W. M. (1996). The psychotherapeutic process: A research handbook. New York: Guilford Press.
Greenberg, M., & Safran, J. D. (1987). Emotion in psychotherapy: Affect, cognition, and the process of change. New York: Guilford Press.
Greenberg, M., Siegel, J., & Leitch, C. J. (1983). The nature and importance of attachment relationships of parents and peers during adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 12, 373-386.
Grotevant, H. D., & Cooper, C. R. (Eds.). (1993). Adolescent development in the family. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Haley, J. (1987). Problem solving therapy. San Francisco: Josey-Bass
Hamilton, M. A. (1960). A rating scale for depression. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 23, 56-62.
Hamilton, E. B., Asarnov, J. R., & Tompson, M. C. (1999). Family interaction styles of children with depressive disorders. Schizophrenia-spectrum disorders, and normal controls. Family Process, 38, 463-476.
Hammen, C., Burge, D., & Stansbury, K. (1990). Relationship of mother and child variables to child outcomes in a high-risk sample: A causal modeling analysis. Developmental Psychology, 26, 24-30.
Hammen, C., Rudolph, K., Weisz, J., Rao, U., & Burge, D. (1999). The context of depression in clinic-referred youth: Neglected areas in treatment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(1), 64-71.
Hargrave, T. D., & Sells, J. N. (1997). The development of a forgiveness scale. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 23(1), 41-63.
Harrington, R., Fudge, H., Rutter, M., Pickles, A., & Hill, J. (1990). Adult outcomes of childhood and adolescent depression: I. Psychiatric status. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 465-473.
Harris, T., Brown, G., & Bifulco, A. (1986). Loss of parent in childhood and adult psychiatric disorder: The lack of adequate parental care. Psychological Medicine, 16, 641-659.
Harter, S. (1990). Causes, correlates and the functional role of global self-worth: A life-span perspective. In R. Sternberg and J. Kolligian (Eds.), Competence considered(pp. 67-97). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Hartley, D. E., & Strupp, H. H. (1983). The therapeutic alliance: Its relationship to outcome in brief psychotherapy. In J. Masling (Ed.), Empirical studies of psychoanalytic theories, (Vol. 1, pp. 1-38). Hillsdale, NJ: Analytical Press.
Herman, J. L. (1992). Trauma and recovery. New York: Basic Books.
Hetherington, E. M., & Martin, B. (1986). Family factors and psychopathology in children. In H. C. Quay & J. S. Werry (Eds.), Psychopathological disorders of childhood (3rd ed). New York: Wiley.
Hibbs, E. D., Hamburger, S. D., Lenane, M., Rapoport, J., Krusi, M. J. P., Keysor, C. S., & Goldstein, M. J. (1991). Determinations of expressed emotion in families of disturbed and normal children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 32, 757-770.
Hogue, A., Liddle, H. A., Rowe, C., Turner, R. M., Dakof, G. A., & LaPann, K. (1998). Treatment adherence and differentiation in individual versus family therapy for adolescent substance abuse. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45(1), 104-114.
Holmbeck, G. N. (1996). A model of famly relational transformations during the transition to adolescence: Parent–adolescent conflict and adaptation. In J. A. Graber, J. Brooks-Gunn, & A.C. Peterson (Eds.), Transitions through adolescence: Interpersonal domains and context(pp. 167-199). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Hooley, J. M., Orley, J., & Teasdale, J. (1986). Levels of expressed emotion and relapse in depressed patients. British Psychiatry, 148, 642-647.
Jack, D. C. (1999). Silencing the self: Inner dialogues and outer realities. In T. Joiner & J. C. Coyne (Eds.), The interactional nature of depression(pp. 221-246). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
Jaenicke, C., Hammen, C., Zupan, B., Hiroto, D., Gordon, D., Adrian, C., et al. (1987). Cognitive vulnerability in children at risk for depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 15(4), 559-572.
Johnson, S. M., Makinen, J. A., & Millikin, J. W. (2001). Attachment injuries in couple relationships: A new perspective on impasses in couples therapy. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 27(2), 145-155.
Joiner, T., & Coyne, J. C. (1999). The interactional nature of depression. Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
Kaslow, N. J., Deering, C. G., & Ash, P. (1996). Relational diagnosis of children and adolescent depression. In F. Kaslow (Ed.), Handbook of relational diagnosis and dysfunctional family patterns(pp. 177-185). New York: Wiley.
Kaslow, N. J., Rehm, L. P., & Siegel, A. W. (1984). Social–cognitive and cognitive correlates of depression in children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 12, 605-620.
Kaslow, N. J., & Thompson, M.P. (1998). Applying the criteria for empirically supported treatments to studies of psychosocial interventions for child and adolescent depression. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 146-155.
Kazdin, A. E. (1991). Effectiveness of psychotherapy with children and adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 785-798.
Kazdin, A. E. (1997). A model for developing effective treatments: Progression and interplay of therapy, research, and practice. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26, 114-129.
Keitner, G. I., Miller, I. W., Epstein, A. E., Bishop, D. S., & Fruzzeti, A. E. (1987). Family functioning and the course of major depression. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 28, 54-64.
Keller, N. B., Ryan, N. D., Strober, M., Klein, R. G., Kutcher, S. P., Birmaher, B., et al. (2001). Efficacy of proxetine in the treatment of adolescent major depression: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 762-772.
Klein, M. H., Mathieu, P. L., Gendlin, E. T., & Kiesler, D. J. (1969). The experiencing scale(Vol. 1). Madison, WI: Wisconsin Psychiatric Institute.
Klein, M. H., Mathieu-Coughlan, P. L., & Kiesler, D. J. (1986). The Experiencing Scales. In L. S. Greenberg & W. M. Pinsof (Eds.), The psychotherapeutic process: A research handbook(pp. 21-71). New York: Guilford Press.
Klerman, G. L., Weissman, M. M., Roundsaville, B. J., & Chevron, E. S. (1983). Interpersonal psychotherapy of depression. New York: Basic Books.
Kobak, R., & Duemmler, S. (1994). Attachment and conversation: Toward a discourse analysis of adolescent and adult security. In K. Bartholomew & D. Perlman (Eds.), Attachment processes in adulthood: Advances in personal relationships(Vol. 5, pp. 121-149). Bristol, PA: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Kobak, R., & Sceery, A. (1988). Attachment in late adolescence: Working models, affect regulation and representations of self and others. Child Development, 59, 135-146.
Kobak, R., Sudler, N., & Gamble, W. (1991). Attachment and depressive symptoms during adolescence: A developmental pathways analysis. Journal of Developmental and Psychopathology, 3, 461-474.
Koocher, G. P. (1976). A bill of rights for children in psychotherapy. In G. P. Koocher (Ed.), Children's rights and the mental health professions(pp. 23-32). New York: Wiley.
Kutcher, S., Boulos, C., Ward, B., Marton, P., Simeon, J., & Ferguson, H. (1994). Response to desipramine treatment in adolescent depression: A fixed-dose, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33(5), 686-694.
Lefkowitz, M. M., & Tesiny, E. P. (1984). Rejection and depression: Prospective and contemporaneous analyses. Developmental Psychology, 20, 776.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Clark, G. N., Hops, H., & Andrews, J. (1990). Cognitive–behavioral treatment for depressed adolescents. Behavioral Therapy, 21, 385-401.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Clark, G. N., Rhode, P., Hops, H., & Seeley, J. (1996). A course in coping: A cognitive–behavioral approach to the treatment of adolescent depression. In E. D. Hibbs & P. S. Jensen (Eds.), Psychosocial treatments for child and adolescent disorders: Empirically based strategies for clinical practice(pp. 109-135). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Hops, H., Roberts, R. E., Seeley, J. R., & Andrews, J. A. (1993). Adolescent psychopathology: I. Prevalence and incidence of depression and other DSM-III-Rdisorders in high school students. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102(4) 517.
Liddle, H. A. (1999). Theory development in a family-based therapy for adolescents drug abuse. Journal of Clinical and Child Psychology, 28(4), 521-533.
Liddle, H. A., Dakof, G. A., & Diamond, G. (1991). Multidimensional family therapy with adolescent substance abuse. In E. Kaufman & P. Kaufman (Eds.), Family therapy with drug and alcohol abuse(pp. 120-178). Boston: Ally & Bacon.
Liddle, H. A., Dakof, G. A., Parker, K., Diamond, G. S., Barrett, K., & Tejeda, M. (2001). Multidimensional family therapy for adolescent drug abuse: Results of a randomized clinical trial. American Journal of Drug and Alcolol Abuse, 27(4), 651-688.
Liddle, H. A., & Diamond, G. S. (1991). Adolescent substance abusers in family therapy: The critical initial phase of treatment. Family Dynamics of Addictions Quarterly, 1, 63-75.
Lindahl, K. M., & Markman, H. J. (1990). Communication and negative affect regulation in the family. In E. A. Blechman (Ed.), Emotions and the family: For better or for worse(pp. 99-115). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Lynch, M., & Cicchetti, D. (1991). Patterns of relatedness in maltreated and non maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 3, 207-226.
Luborsky, L. (1984). Principles of psychoanalytic psychotherapy: A manual for supportive expressive treatment. New York: Basic Books.
Main, M., & Goldwyn, R. (1988). Adult attachment classification system (version 3.2). Unpublished manuscript, University of California, Berkeley.
Main, M., Kaplan, N., & Cassidy, J. (1985). Security in infancy, childhood and adulthood: A move to the level of representation. In I. Bretherton & E. Waters (Eds.), Growing points in attachment theory and research (pp. 66–104), Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50 (1-2, Serial No. 209).
McCullough, M. E., Pargament, K. I., & Thoresen, C.E. (2000). The psychology of forgiveness: History, conceptual issues, and overview. In M. E. McCullough, K. I. Pargament, & C. E. Thoreson (Eds.), Forgiveness: Theory, research, and practice(pp. 1-14). New York: The Guilford Press.
Micucci, J. (1998). The adolescent in the family. New York: Guilford Press.
Minuchin, S. (1974). Families and family therapy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Press.
Moran, G., Diamond, G. M., & Diamond, G. S. The relational reframe and changes in clients' problem constructions in attachment-based family therapy. Unpublished manuscript.
Mufson, L., Moreau, D., Weissman, M. M., Wickramaratne, P., Martin, J., & Samoilov, A. (1994). Modification of interpersonal psychotherapy with depressed adolescents (IPT-A): Phase I and II studies. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescents Psychiatry, 33(5), 695-705.
Mufson, L., Weissman, M. M., Moreau, D., & Garfinkel, R. (1999). Efficacy of interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed adolescents. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 573-579.
Parker, G. (1983). Parental overprotection: A risk factor in psychosocial development. New York: Grune & Stratton.
Pearson, J. L., Cohn, D. A., Cowan, P. A., & Cowan, C. P. (1994). Earned and continuous-security in adult attachment: Relation to depressive symptomatology and parenting styles. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 359-373.
Peterson, L., Mullins, L. L., & Ridley-Johnson, R. (1985). Childhood depression: Peer reactions to depression and life stress. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 13, 597-609.
Powers, S. I., & Welsh, D. P. (1999). Mother–Daughter interactions and adolescent girls' depression. In M. J. Cox & J. Brooks-Gunn (Eds.), Conflict and cohesion in families: Causes and consequences(pp. 243-282). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Prochaska, J. O., & DiClimente, C. C. (1982). Transtheoretical therapy: Toward a more integrative model of change. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 19, 276-278.
Puig-Antich, J., Lukens, E., Davies, M., Goetz, D., Brennan-Quattrock, J., & Todak, G. (1985). Psychosocial functioning in prepubertal major depressive disorders: II. Interpersonal relationships after sustained recovery from affective disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 511-517.
Radziszewska, B., Richardson, J. L., Dent, C. W., & Flay, B. R. (1996). Parenting style and adolescent depressive symptoms, smoking and academic achievement: Ethnic, gender, and SES differences. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 19, 289-305.
Rehm, L. P. (1977). A self-control model of depression. Behavior Therapy, 8, 787-804.
Reynolds, W. M., & Coates, K. I. (1986). A comparison of cognitive–behavioral therapy and relaxation training for the treatment of depression in adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 653-660.
Rice, L. N., & Greenberg, L. S. (1984). Patterns of change. New York: Guilford Press.
Rosenstein, D. S., & Horowitz, H. A. (1996). Adolescent attachment and psychopathology. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(2), 244-253.
Rosselló, J., & Bernal, G. (1999). The efficacy of cognitive–behavioral and interpersonal treatments for depression in Puerto Rican adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67(5), 734-745.
Rubin, K. H., & Mills, R. S. (1991). Conceptualizing developmental pathways to internalizing disorders in childhood. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 23(3), 300-317.
Russ, S. W. (1998). Introductory comments. Journal of Child and Clinical Psychology, 27(1), 2-3.
Sheeber, L., Allen, N., Davis, B., & Sorensen, E. (2000). Regulation of negative affect during mother–child problem-solving interactions: Adolescent depressive status and family processes. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 467-479.
Sheeber, L., Hops, H., Alpert, A., Davis, B., & Andrews, J. (1997). Family support and conflict: Prospective relations to adolescent depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25, 333-344.
Sheeber, L., Hops, H., Andrews, J., Alpert, T., & Davis, B. (1998). Interactional processes in families with depressed and non-depressed adolescents: Reinforcement of depressive behavior. Behavior Research and Therapy, 36(4), 417-427.
Sheeber, L., Hops, H., & Davis, B. (2001). Family processes in adolescent depression. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 4(1), 19-35.
Shirk, S. R., & Russell, R. L. (1996). Change processes in child psychotherapy: Revitalizing treatment and research. New York: Guilford Press.
Siqueland, L., Rynn, M., & Diamond, G. S. (2002). Cognitive behavioral and attachment based family therapy for anxious adolescents: Phase I and II studies. Unpublished manuscript.
Smetana, J., & Dillard, J. P. (1992) Adolescents' and parents' conceptions of parental authority and personal autonomy. Child Development, 65, 1147-1162.
Stark, K. (1990). Childhood depression school-based intervention. New York: Guilford Press.
Stark, K. D., Humphrey, L. L., Crook, K., & Lewis, K. (1990). Perceived family environments of depressed and anxious children: Child's and maternal figure's perspectives. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 18, 527-547.
Stark, K. D., Humphrey, L. L., Laurent, J., Livingston, R., & Christopher, J. (1993). Cognitive, behavioral, and family factors in the differentiation of depressive and anxiety disorders during childhood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 878-886.
Startup, M., & Shapiro, D. A. (1993). Therapist treatment fidelity in prescriptive vs. exploratory psychotherapy. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 32(4), 443-456.
Steinberg, L. (1990). Autonomy, conflict and harmony in the family relationships. In S. S. Feldman and G. R. Elliot (Eds.), At the threshold: The developing adolescent(pp. 255-276). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Stern, R., & Diamond, G. S. (under review). Repairing attachment ruptures in families with depressed adolescents: A task analysis.
Thompson, R. A., & Calkins, S. D. (1996). The double-edged sword: Emotional regulation for children at risk. Development and Psychopathology, 8(1), 163-182.
U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assistance. (1991). Adolescent health:–Vol. 2. Background and the effectiveness of selected prevention and treatment services, OTA-H-466. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Vernberg, E. M. (1998). Developmentally based psychotherapies: Comments and observations. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 46-48.
Waters, E., Hamilton, C. E., & Weinfield, N. S. (2000). The stability of attachment security from infancy to adolescence and early adulthood: General introduction. Child Development, 71, 678-683.
Waters, E., Kondo-Ikemura, K., Posada, G., & Richters, J. E. (1991). Learning to love: Mechanisms and milestones. In M. R. Gunnar & L. A. Sroufe (Eds.), Self processes and development. The Minnesota symposia on child psychology(Vol. 23, pp. 217-255). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Weinfeld, N. S., Sroufe, L. A., & Egelund, B. (2000). Attachment from infancy to early adulthood: A twenty-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 71, 684-689.
Weissman, M. M., & Paykel, E. S. (1974). The depressed woman: A study of social relationships. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Worthington, E. L. (1998). An empathy–humility–commitment model of forgiveness applied within family dyads. Journal of Family Therapy, 20(1), 59-76.
Yeaton, W. H., & Sechrest, L. (1981). Meaningful measures of effect. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 49(5), 766-767.
Zahn-Waxler, C., Cole, P. M., & Barrett, K. C. (1991). Guilt and empathy: Sex differences and implications for the development of depression. In J. Garber & K. Dodge (Eds.), The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation(pp. 243-272). Cambridge studies in social and emotional development.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Diamond, G., Siqueland, L. & Diamond, G.M. Attachment-Based Family Therapy for Depressed Adolescents: Programmatic Treatment Development. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 6, 107–127 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023782510786
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023782510786