Abstract
Despite the rapid growth of research on neighborhood influences on children, little of this research may be useful to prevention scientists. Most studies have ignored processes by which neighborhood conditions influence individual outcomes. To encourage neighborhood research that can better guide the development of preventive interventions, we propose a model that focuses attention on mediating and moderating processes, is appropriate for studies interested in individual differences in outcomes, acknowledges the transactions between residents and neighborhoods, and is sensitive to how neighborhood influences may differ for children at different developmental stages. Furthermore, we argue that greater attention to several methodological issues also can make neighborhood research more useful for the next generation of prevention programs to help low-income urban families and children cope successfully with the challenges posed by their neighborhoods.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aber, L. L. (1994). Poverty, violence, and child development: Untangling family and community level effects. In C. Nelson (Ed.), Threats to optimal development: Integrating biological, psychological, and social risk factors Vol. (27, pp. 229–272). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.–
Aber, M. S., & Nieto, M. (2000). Suggestions for the investigation of psychological wellness in the neighborhood context: Toward a pluralistic neighborhood theory. In D. Cicchetti, J. Rappaport, I. Sandler, & R. P. Weissberg (Eds.), The promotion of wellness in children and adolescents (pp. 185–219). Washington, DC: CWLA Press.–
Aneshensel, C. S., & Sucoff, C. A. (1996). The neighborhood context of adolescent mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 37, 293–310.–
Attar, B. K., Guerra, N. G., & Tolan, P. H. (1994). Neighborhood disadvantage, stressful life events, and adjustment in urban elementary–school children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 23, 391–400.–
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182.–
Bowen, G. L., & Chapman, M. V. (1996). Poverty, neighborhood danger, social support, and the individual adaptation among at–risk youth in urban areas. Journal of Family Issues, 17, 641–666.–
Boyce, W. T., Frank, E., Jensen, P. S., Hessler, R. C., Nelson, C. A., Steinberg, L., & The MacArthur Foundation Research Network on Psychopathology and Development. (1998). Social context in developmental psychopathology: Recommendations for future research from the MacArthur Network on Psychopathology and Development. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 143–164.–
Brody, G. H., Ge, X., Conger, R., Gibbons, F. X., Murry, C. M., Gerrard, M., & Simons, R. L. (2001). The influence of neighborhood disadvantage, collective socialization, and parenting on African American children's affiliation with deviant peers. Child Development, 72, 1231–1246.–
Bronfenbrenner, U., Moen, P., & Garbarino, J. (1984). Child, family, and community. In R. D. Parke (Ed.), Review of child development research Vol. (17, pp. 283–328). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.–
Brooks–Gunn, J., & Duncan, G. J. (1997). The effects of poverty on children. The Future of Children, 7, 55–71.–
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierachical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.–
Burton, L. M., & Graham, J. (1998). Neighborhood rhythms and the social activities of adolescent mothers. In R. Larson & A. C. Crouter (Eds.), Temporal rhythms in adolescence: Clocks, calendars, and the coordination of daily life (pp. 7–22). San Francisco: Jossey–Bass.–
Burton, L. M., & Jarrett, R. L. (2000). In the mix, yet on the margins: The place of families in urban neighborhood and child development research. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 1114–1135.–
Burton, L. M., Obeidallah, D. A., & Allison, K. (1996). Ethnographic insights on social context and adolescent development among inner–city African–American teens. In R. Jessor, A. Colby, & R. Sweder (Eds.), Ethnography and human development: Context and meaning in social inquiry (pp. 395–418). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.–
Chaskin, R. J. (1997, December). Perspectives on neighborhood and community: A review of the literature. Social Service Review, 521–547.–
Chavis, D. M., & Wandersman, A. (1990). Sense of community in the urban environment: A catalyst for participation and community development. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 55–81.–
Coie, J. D., Watt, N. F., West, S. G., Hawkins, D., Asarnow, J. R., Markman, H. J., Ramey, S. L., Shure, M. B., & Long, B. (1993). The science of prevention: A conceptual framework and some directions for a national research program. American Psychologist, 48, 1013–1022.–
Colder, C. R., Wood, J., Levy, S., & Flay, B. (2000). The relation of perceived neighborhood danger to childhood aggression: A test of mediating mechanisms. American Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 83–103.–
Cook, T. D., Shagle, S. C., & Degirmencioglu, S. M. (1997). Capturing social processes for testing mediational models of neighborhood effects. In J. Brooks–Gunn, G. J. Duncan, & J. L. Aber (Eds.), Neighborhood poverty: Vol 2. Policy implications in studying neighborhoods (pp. 94–119). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.–
Corcoran, M. E. & Chandry, A. (1997). The dynamics of childhood poverty. Future of Children, 7, 40–54.–
Coulton, C. J., Korbin, J. E., & Su, M. (1996). Measuring neighborhood context for young children in an urban area. American Journal of Community Pscyhology, 24, 5–32.–
Coulton, C. J., & Pandey, S. (1992). Geographic concentration of poverty and risk to children in urban neighborhoods. American Behavioral Scientist, 35, 238–257.–
Covington, J., & Taylor, R. B. (1991). Fear of crime in urban residential neighborhoods: Implications of between and within–neighborhood sources for current models. Sociological Quarterly, 32, 231–249.–
Cutrona, C. E., Russell, D. W., Hessling, R. M., Brown, P. A., & Murry, V. (2000). Direct and moderating effects of community context: The psychological well–being of African American women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 1088–1101.–
DelConte, A., & Kling, J. (2001). A synthesis of MTO research on self–sufficiency, safety, and health, and behavior and delinquency. Poverty Research News, 5, 3–6.–
Demo, D. H., Small, S. A., & Savin–Williams, R. C. (1987). Family relations and the self–esteem of adolescents and their parents. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 49, 705–715.–
Devaney, B. L., Ellwood, M. R., & Love, J. M. (1997). Programs that mitigate the effects of poverty on children. Future of Children, 7, 88–112.–
Duncan, G. J. (1994). Families and neighbors as sources of disadvantage in the schooling decisions of white and black adolescents. American Journal of Education, 103, 20–53.–
Duncan, G. J., & Brooks–Gunn, J. (1997). Income effects across the life span: Integration and interpretation. In G. J. Duncan & J. Brooks–Gunn (Eds.), Consequences of growing up poor (pp. 596–610). Washington, DC: Russell Sage Foundation.–
Duncan, G. J., Connell, J. P., & Klebanov, P. K. (1997). Conceptual and methodological issues in estimating causal effects of neighborhoods and family conditions on individual development. In J. Brooks–Gunn, G. J. Duncan, & J. L. Aber (Eds.), Neighborhood poverty: Vol 1. Context and consequences for children (pp. 219–250). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.–
Duncan, G. J., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1999). Assessing the effects of context in studies of child and youth development. Educational Psychologist, 34, 29–41.–
Duncan, G. J., & Raudenbush, S. W. (2001). Neighborhoods and adolescent development: How can we determine the links? In A. Booth & A. C. Crouter (Eds.), Does it take a village? Community effects on children, adolescents, and families (pp. 105–136). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.–
Elliott, D. S., Wilson, W. J., Huizinga, D., Sampson, R. J., Elliott, A., & Rankin, B. (1996). The effects of neighborhood disadvantage on adolescent development. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 33, 389–426.–
Felner, R. D., Brand, S., DuBois, D. L., Adan, A. M., Mulhall, P. F., & Evans, E. G. (1995). Socioeconomic disadvantage, proximal environmental experiences, and socioemotional and academic adjustment in early adolescence: Investigation of a mediated effects model. Child Development, 66, 774–792.–
Furstenburg, F. F., Jr. (1993). How families manage risk and opportunity in dangerous neighborhoods. In W. J. Wilson (Ed.), Sociology and the public agenda (pp. 231–258). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Furstenburg, F. F., Jr., Cook, T. D., Eccles, J., Elder, G. H., & Sameroff, A. (1999). Managing to make it: Urban families and adolescent success. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Garner, C. L., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1991). Neighborhood effects on educational attainment: A multilevel analysis. Sociology of Education, 64, 251–262.–
Gonzales, N. A., Cauce, A. M., Friedman, R. J., & Mason, C. A. (1996). Family, peer and neighborhood influences on academic achievement among African American adolescents: One–year prospective effects. American Journal of Community Psychology, 24, 365–387.–
Greenberg, M. T., Lengua, L. J., Coie, J. D., & Pinderhughes, E. E. (1999). Predicting developmental outcomes at school entry using a multiple–risk model: Four American communities. Developmental Psychology, 35, 403–417.–
Guerra, N. G., Huesman, L. R., Tolan, P. H., Van Acker, R., & Eron, L. D. (1995). Stressful events and individual beliefs as correlates of economic disadvantage and aggression among urban children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 518–528.–
Hox, J. (1995). Multilevel modeling: When and why. In I. Balderjahn, R. Mathar, & M. Schader (Eds.), Classification, data analysis, and data highways (pp. 147–154). New York: Springer Verlag.–
Jarrett, R. L. (1997). African American family and parenting strategies in impoverished neighborhoods. Qualitative Sociology, 20, 275–288.–
Jencks, C., & Mayer, S. E. (1990). The social consequences of growing up in a poor neighborhood. In I. Tyrus & M. Geary (Eds.), Inner–city poverty in the United States (pp. 111–186). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.–
Korbin, J. E., Coulton, C. J., Chard, S., Platt–Houston, C., & Su, M. (1998). Impoverishment and child maltreatment in African American and European American neighborhoods. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 215–233.–
Kreft, I. (1996). Are multilevel techniques necessary? An overview, including simulation studies. Los Angeles: California State University.–
Kreft, I., & De Leeuw, J. (1998). Introducing multilevel modeling. London: Sage Publication.–
Lee, B. A. (2001). Taking neighborhood seriously. In A. Booth & A. C. Crouter (Eds.), Does it take a village? Community effects on children, adolescents, and families (pp. 31–40). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.–
Lee, B. A., & Campbell, K. E. (1997). Common grounds? Urban neighborhoods as survey respondents see them. Social Science Quarterly, 78, 922–936.–
Lee, B. A., & Campbell, K. E. (1998). Neighborhood networks of Black and White Americans. In B. Wellman (Ed.), Networks in the global village (119–147). Boulder, CO: Westview.–
Leventhal, T., & Brooks–Gunn, J. (2000). The neighborhoods they live in: The effects of neighborhood residence on child and adult outcomes. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 309–336.–
Leventhal, T. & Brooks–Gunn, J. (2001). Moving to better neighborhoods improves health and family life among New York families. Poverty News, 5, 11–12.–
Lipman, E. L. & Offord, D. R. (1997). Psychosocial morbidity among poor children in Ontario. In G. J. Duncan & J. Brooks–Gunn (Eds.), Consequences of growing up poor (pp. 239–287). Washington, DC: Russell Sage Foundation.–
Lipsey, M. W. (1990). Theory as method: Small theories of treatments. In L. Sechrest, E. Perrin, & J. Bunker (Eds.), Research methodology: Strengthening causal interpretations of nonexperimental data (Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, DHHS Pulbication No. ADM–90–3454, pp. 33–51). Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.–
Liska, A. E., Sanchirico, A., & Reed, M. D. (1988). Fear of crime and constrained behavior: Specifying and estimating a reciprocal effects model. Social Forces, 66, 827–837.–
Logan, J. R., & Collver, O. A. (1983). Resident perceptions of suburban community differences. American Sociological Review, 48, 428–433.–
Ludwig, J., Duncan, G., & Ladd, H. (2001). The effect of MTO on Baltimore children's educational outcomes. Poverty News, 5, 13–15.–
Luther, S. S. (1999). Poverty and children's adjustment. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.–
Marmot, M. G., Kogevinas, M., & Elston, M. A. (1987). Social/economic statis and disease. Annual Review of Public Health, 8, 111–135.–
Masten, A. S., & Coatsworth, J. D. (1998). The development of competence in favorable and unfavorable environments: Lessons from research on successful children. American Psychologist, 53, 205–220.–
McLeod, J. D., & Shanahan, M. J. (1996). Trajectories of poverty and children's mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 37, 207.–
McLoyd, V. C. (1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychologist, 53, 185–204.–
Miech, R. A., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Wright, B. R. E., & Silva, P. A. (1999). Low socioeconomic status and mental disorders: A longitudinal study of selection and causation during young adulthood. American Journal of Sociology, 104, 1096–1131.–
Mok, M. (1995). Sample size requirements for 2–level designs in educational research. Sydney, Australia: Macquaire University.–
Mrazek, P. J., & Haggerty, R. J. (Eds.). (1994). Reducing the risk for mental disorders: Frontiers for preventive intervention research. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.–
National Center for Children in Poverty (2000, July). Child poverty fact sheet. New York: Columbia University.–
Paschall, M. J., & Hubbard, M. L. (1998). Effects of neighborhood and family stressors on African–American male adolescents' self–worth and propensity for violent behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 825–831.–
Perkins, D. D., Meeks, J. W., & Taylor, R. B. (1992). The physical environments of street blocks and resident perceptions of crime and disorder: Implications for theory and measurement. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 12, 21–34.–
Perkins, D. D., & Taylor, R. B. (1996). Ecological assessments of community disorder: Their relationship to fear of crime and theoretical implications. American Journal of Community Psychology, 24, 63–107.–
Perkins, D. D., Wandersman, A., Rich, R. C., & Taylor, R. B. (1993). The physical environment of street crime: Defensible space, territoriality and incivilities. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 13, 29–49.–
Petit, B., & McLanahan, S. (2001). Social dimensions of Moving to Opportunity. Poverty News, 5, 7–10.–
Raudenbush, S. W. & Sampson, R. (1999). Assessing direct and indirect effects in multilevel designs with latent variables. Sociological Methods & Research, 28, 123–153.–
Roosa, M. W., Wolchik, S., & Sandler, I. N. (1997). Preventing the negative effects of common stressors: Current status and future directions. In S. Wolchik & I. N. Sandler (Eds.), Handbook of children's coping (pp. 515–533). New York: Plenum.–
Rosenbaum, J. E., Rubinowitz, L., & Kulieke, M. (1987). The social integration of low–income Black children into White suburbs. Journal of Negro Education, 56, 35–43.–
Rosenbaum, J. E., Rubinowitz, L., & Kulieke, M. (1988). White suburban schools' responses to low–income Black children. Urban Review, 20, 28–41.–
Ross, C. E. (2000). Neighborhood disadvantage and adult depression. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 41, 177–187.–
Rutter, M. (1990). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. In J. Rolf, A. S. Masten, D. Cicchetti, K. H. Nuechterlein, & S. Weintrabe (Eds.), Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology (pp. 181–214). New York: Cambridge University Press.–
Sampson, R. J. (1992). Family management and child development: Insights into social disorganization theory. In J. McCord (Ed.), Advances in criminological theory Vol. 3, pp. 63–93). New Brunswich: Transaction.–
Sampson, R. J. (1997). Collective regulation of adolescent misbehavior: Validation results from eight Chicago neighborhoods. Journal of Adolescent Research, 12, 227–244.–
Sampson, R. J. (1999). What “community” supplies. In R. F. Ferguson & W. T. Dickens (Eds.), Urban problems and community development (pp. 241–292). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.–
Sampson, R. J. (2001). How do communities undergird or undermine human development? Relevant contexts and social mechanisms. In A. Booth & A. C. Crouter (Eds.), Does it take a village? Community effects on children, adolescents, and families (pp. 3–30). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.–
Sampson, R. J., & Groves, W. B. (1989). Community structure and crime: Testing social–disorganization theory. American Journal of Sociology, 94, 774–802.–
Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (1993). Crime in the making: Pathways and turning points through life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.–
Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (1994). Urban poverty and the family context of delinquency: A new look at structure and process in a classic study. Child Development, 65, 523–540.–
Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (1997). A life–course theory of cumulative disadvantage and the stability of delinquency. In T. P. Thornberry (Ed.), Advances in criminological theories: Vol. 7. Developmental theories of crime and delinquency (pp. 133–161). New Brunswick: Transaction.–
Sampson, R. J., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1999). Systematic observation of public spaces: A new look at disorder in urban neighborhoods. American Journal of Sociology, 105, 603–651.–
Sampson, R. J., Raudenbush, S. W. & Earls, F. (1997). Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277, 918–924.–
Sawicki, D. S., & Flynn, P. (1996). Neighborhood indicators: A review of the literature and an assessment of conceptual and methodological issues. Journal of the American Planning Association, 62, 165–183.–
Seccombe, K. (2000). Families in poverty in the 1990s: Trends, causes, consequences, and lessons learned. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 1094–1113.–
Shumow, L., Vandell, D. L., & Posner, J. (1998). Perceptions of danger: A psychological mediator of neighborhood demographic characteristics. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 68, 468–478.–
Simons, R. L., Johnson, C., Beaman, J., Conger, R. D., & Whitbeck, L. B. (1996). Parents and peer group as mediators of the effects of community structure on adolescent problem behavior. American Journal of Community Psychology, 24, 145–171.–
Small, S., & Supple, A. (2001). Communities as systems: Is a community more than the sum of its parts? In A. Booth & A. C. Crouter (Eds.), Does it take a village? Community effects on children, adolescents, and families (pp. 161–174). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.–
Smith, J. R., Brooks–Gunn, J., & Klebanov, P. K. (1997). Consequences of living in poverty for young children's cognitive and verbal ability and early school achievement. In G. J. Duncan & J. Brooks–Gunn (Eds.), Consequences of growing up poor (pp. 132–189). Washington, DC: Russell Sage Foundation.–
Snijders, T. (2001). Sampling. In A. Leyland & H. Goldstein (2001). Multilevel modeling of heath statistics. New York: Wiley.–
Snijders, T., & Bosker, R. (1993). Standard errors and sample sizes for two–level research. Journal of Educational Statistics, 18, 237–259.–
Snijders, T., & Bosker, R. (1999). Multilevel analysis: An introduction to basic and advanced multilevel modeling. London: Sage Publication.–
Spencer, M. B. (2001). Resiliency and fragility factors associated with the contextual experiences of low resource urban African American male youth and families. In A. Booth & A. C. Crouter (Eds.), Does it take a village? Community effects on children, adolescents, and families (pp. 51–77). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.–
Spencer, M. B., McDermott, P. A., Burton, L. M., & Kochman, T. J. (1997). An alternative approach to assessing neighborhood effects on early adolescent achievement and problem behavior. In J. Brooks–Gunn, G. J. Duncan, & J. L. Aber (Eds.), Neighborhood poverty: Vol. 2: Policy implication in studying neighborhoods (pp. 145–163). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.–
Taylor, R. B. (1997). Social order and disorder of street blocks and neighborhoods: Ecology, microecology and the systemic model of social disorganization. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 34, 113–155.–
Taylor, R. B., Gottfredson, S. D., & Bower, S. (1984). Block crime and fear: Defensible space, local social ties, and territorial functioning. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 21, 303–331.–
Taylor, R. B., Shumaker, S. A., & Gottfredson, S. D., (1985). Neighborhood–level links between physical and local sentiments: Deterioration, fear of crime, and confidence. Journal of Architectural Planning and Research, 2, 261–275.–
Tienda, M. (1991). Poor people and poor places: Deciphering neighborhood effects on poverty outcomes. In J. Huber (Ed.), Macro–micro linkages in sociology (pp. 244–262). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.–
Vartanian, T. P. (1999). Childhood conditions and adult welfare use: Examining neighborhood and family factors. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61, 225–237.–
Wilson, W. J. (1987). The truly disadvantaged: The inner city, the underclass, and public policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.–
Wilson, W. J. (1996). When work disappears: The world of the new urban poor. New York: Knopf.–
Wilson, D. K., Kliewer, W., Plybon, L., & Sica, D. A. (2000). Socioeconomic status and blood pressure reactivity in healthy Black adolescents. Hypertension, 35, 496–500.–
Yoshikawa, H. (1994). Prevention as cumulative protection: Effects of early family support and education on chronic delinquency and its risks. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 28–54.– –
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Roosa, M.W., Jones, S., Tein, JY. et al. Prevention Science and Neighborhood Influences on Low-Income Children's Development: Theoretical and Methodological Issues. Am J Community Psychol 31, 55–72 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023070519597
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023070519597