Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The importance of silicon for marine production*

  • Published:
Hydrobiologia Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

A review of silicon, with emphasis on its forms, uptake, dissolution and role in marine primary production, is given. The importance of silicon in marine food webs is discussed, as well as the concentrations of silicon in various areas and the importance of changing N:Si:P ratios. The methodology for measuring silicate transformations has recently been improved by the introduction of the highly enriched 32Si isotope. Results from uptake experiments using 32Si in nutrient rich coastal water and in open ocean are presented. The uptake kinetic experiments showed that the silicate uptake usually is unsaturated. We propose that closer attention in the future should be paid to the importance of balanced nutrient composition as well as nutrient supply dynamics for the development of eutrophication versus efficient trophic transfer and fish production in nutrient enriched systems. Close attention should also be paid to the mechanisms that reduce the inputs of silicate to coastal waters.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Anderson, D.M., 1994. Red tides. Scientific American 271: 52-58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ban, S., C. Burns, J. Castel, Y. Chaudron, E. Christou, R. Escribano, S. F. Umani, S. Gasparini, F. G. Ruiz, M. Hoffmeyer, A. Ianora, H.-K. Kang, M. Laabir, A. Lacoste, A. Miralto, X. Ning, S. Poulet, V. Rodriguez, J. Runge, J. Shi, M. Starr, S.-i. Uye & Y. Wang, 1997. The paradox of diatom-copepod interactions. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 157: 287-293.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bidle, K. D. & F. Azam, 1999. Accelerated dissolution of diatom silica by marine bacterial assemblages. Nature 397: 508-512.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brzezinski, M. A., 1985. The Si:C:N ratio of marine diatoms: interspecific variability and the effect of some environmental variables. J. Phycol. 21: 347-357.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brzezinski, M. A. & D. M. Nelson, 1989. Seasonal changes in the silicon cycle within a Gulf Stream warm-core ring. Deep-Sea Res. 36: 1009-1030.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brzezinski, M. A. & D. M. Nelson, 1995. The annual silica cycle in the Saragasso Sea near Bermuda. Deep Sea Res. 42: 1215-1237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brzezinski, M. A. & D. M. Nelson, 1996. Chronic substrate limitation of silicate uptake rates in the western Sargasso Sea. Deep-Sea Res. II 43: 437-453.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brzezinski, M. A. & D. R. Phillips, 1997. Evaluation of 32Si as a tracer for measuring silica production rates in marine waters. Limnol. Oceanogr. 42: 856-865.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brzezinski, M. A., D. R. Phillips, F. P. Chavez, G. E. Friederich & R. C. Dugdale, 1997. Silica production in the Monterey, California, upwelling system. Limnol. Oceanogr. 42: 1694-1705.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlsson, P. & E. Granéli, 1999. Effects of N:P:Si ratios and zooplankton grazing on phytoplankton communities in the northern Adriatic Sea. II. Phytoplankton species composition. Aquat. Microb. Ecol. 18: 55-65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cederwall, H. & R. Elmgren, 1990. Biological effects of eutrophication in the Baltic Sea, particularly the coastal zone. Ambio 19: 109-112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cloern, J. E., 1996. Phytoplankton bloom dynamics in coastal ecosystems: A review with some general lessons from sustained investigations of San Francisco Bay, California. Rev. Geophys. 34: 127-168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conley, D. J., 1997. Riverine contribution of biogenic silica to the oceanic silica budget. Limnol. Oceanogr. 42: 774-777.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conley, D. J., C. L. Schelske & E. F. Stoermer, 1993. Modification of the biogeochemical cycle of silica with eutrophication. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 101: 179-192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dahl, E. & K. Tangen, 1993. 25 years experience with Gyrodinium aureolum in Norwegian waters. In Smayda, T. J. & Y. Shimizu (eds), Toxic Phytoplankton Blooms in the Sea. Elsevier, Amsterdam: 15-21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dahl, E., O. Lindahl, E. Paasche & J. Throndsen, 1989. The Chrysochromulina polylepis bloom in Scandinavian waters during spring 1988. In Cosper, E.M., V. M. Bricelj & E. J. Carpenter (eds), Novel Phytoplankton Blooms. Springer-Verlag, Berlin: 383-405.

    Google Scholar 

  • Del Amo, Y. & M. A. Brzezinski, 1999. The chemical form of dissolved Si taken up by marine diatoms. J. Phycol. 35: 1162-1170.

    Google Scholar 

  • Doering, P. H., C. A. Oviatt, L. L. Beatty, V. F. Banzon, R. Rice, S. P. Kelly, B. K. Sullivan & J. B. Frithsen, 1989. Structure and 30 function in a model coastal ecosystem: Silicon, the benthos and eutrophication. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 52: 287-299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duarte, C. M., S. Agustí, J. M. Gasol, D. Vaqué & E. Vazquez-Dominguez, 2000. Effect of nutrient supply on the biomass structure of planktonic communities: an experimental test on a Mediterranean coastal community. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 206: 87-95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dugdale, R. C. & F. P. Wilkerson, 1998. Silicate regulation of new production in the equatorial Pacific upwelling. Nature 391: 270-273.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dugdale, R. C., F. P. Wilkerson & H. J. Minas, 1995. The role of a silicate pump in driving new production. Deep Sea Res. 42: 697-719.

    Google Scholar 

  • Egge, J. K. & D. L. Aksnes, 1992. Silicate as regulating nutrient in phytoplankton competition. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 83: 281-289.

    Google Scholar 

  • Egge, J. K. & A. Jacobsen, 1997. Influence of silicate on particulate carbon production in phytoplankton. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 147: 219-230.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elmgren, R., 1989. Man's impact on the ecosystem of the Baltic Sea: Energy flows today and at the turn of the century. Ambio 18: 326-332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falkowski, P. G. & J. A. Raven, 1997. Aquatic Photosynthesis. Blackwell, Malden, 375 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gjøsæter, J., K. Lekve, N. C. Stenseth, H. P. Leinaas, H. Christie, E. Dahl, D. S. Danielssen, B. Edvardsen, F. Olsgard, E. Oug & E. Paasche, 2000. A long-term perspective on the Chrysochromulina bloom on the Norwegian Skagerrak coast 1988: a catastrophe or an innocent incident? Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 207: 201-218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gran, H. H., 1912. Pelagic plant life. In Murray, J. & J. Hjort (eds), The Depths of the Ocean. MacMillian, London: 307-386.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gray, J. S., 1992. Eutrophication in the sea. In Colombo, G., I. Ferrari, V. U. Ceccherellii & R. Rossi (eds), Marine Eutrophication and Population Dynamics. Olsen and Olsen, Fredensborg: 3-15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hallegraeff, G. M., 1993. A review of harmful algal blooms and their apparent global increase. Phycologia 32: 79-99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hallegraeff, G. M., D. M. Anderson & A. D. Cembella, 1995. Manual on harmful marine microalgae. UNESCO, Paris, 551 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, R. P., 1996. Feeding ecology of Calanus. Ophelia 44: 85-109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, W. G., 1993. Nutrient recycling in production experiments. ICES mar. Sci. Symp. 197: 149-158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hasle, G. R. & T. J. Smayda, 1960. The annual phytoplankton cycle at Drøbak, Oslofjord. Nytt Mag. Bot. 8: 53-75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heilmann, J. P., K. Richardson & G. Ærtebjerg, 1994. Annual distribution and activity of phytoplankton in the Skagerrak/Kattegat frontal region. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 112: 213-223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoagland, K. D., J. R. Rosowski, M. R. Gretz & S. C. Roemer, 1993. Diatom extracellular polymeric substances: function, fine structure, chemistry, and physiology. J. Phycol. 29: 537-566.

    Google Scholar 

  • Humborg, C., V. Ittekkot, A. Cociasu & B. v. Bodungen, 1997. Effect of Danube River dam on Black Sea biogeochemistry and ecosystem structure. Nature 386: 385-388.

    Google Scholar 

  • Humborg, C., D. J. Conley, L. Rahm, F. Wulff, A. Cociasu & V. Ittekkot, 2000. Silicon retention in river basins: Far-reaching effects on biogeochemistry and aquatic food webs in coastal marine environments. Ambio 29: 45-50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, G. A., 1990. A model of the formation of marine algal flocs by physical coagulation processes. Deep Sea Res. 37: 1197-1211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jickells, T. D., 1998. Nutrient biogeochemistry of the coastal zone. Science 281: 217-222.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jonasdottir, S. H., T. Kiørboe, K. W. Tang, M. St. John, A. W. Visser, E. Saiz & H. G. Dam, 1998. Role of diatoms in copepod production: good, harmless or toxic? Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 172: 305-308.

    Google Scholar 

  • Justić, D., N. N. Rabalais & R. E. Turner, 1995. Stoichiometric nutrient balance and origin of coastal eutrophication. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 30: 41-46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kamatani, A., 1982. Dissolution rates of silica from diatoms decomposing at various temperatures. Mar. Biol. 68: 91-96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kang, H.-K. & S. A. Poulet, 2000. Reproductive success in Calanus helgolandicus as a function of diet and egg cannibalism. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 201: 241-250.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kiørboe, T. & T. G. Nielsen, 1994. Regulation of zooplankton biomass and production in a temperate, coastal ecosystem. 1. Copepods. Limnol. Oceanogr. 39: 493-507.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kleppel, G. S. & C. A. Burkart, 1995. Egg production and the nutritional environment of Acartia tonsa: the role of food quality in copepod nutrition. ICES J. mar. Sci. 52: 297-304.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kristiansen, S., 1998. Impact of increased river discharge on the phytoplankton community in the outer Oslofjord, Norway. Hydrobiologia 363: 169-177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kristiansen, S., T. Farbrot & L.-J. Naustvoll, 2000. Production of biogenic silica by spring diatoms. Limnol. Oceanogr. 45: 472-478.

    Google Scholar 

  • Legendre, L. & F. Rassoulzadegan, 1995. Plankton and nutrient dynamics in marine waters. Ophelia 41: 153-172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levitus, S., M. E. Conkright, J. L. Reid, R. G. Najjar & A. Mantyla, 1993. Distribution of nitrate, phosphate and silicate in the world oceans. Progr. Oceanogr. 31: 245-273.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewin, J. C., 1962. Silicification. In Lewin, R. A. (ed.), Physiology and Biochemistry of Algae. Academic, New York: 445-455.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, J. H. & S. E. Fitzwater, 1988. Iron deficiency limits phytoplankton growth in the north-east Pacific subarctic. Nature 331: 341-343.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, L. M. & S. P. Gloss, 1980. Buffering of silica and phosphate in a turbid river. Limnol. Oceanogr. 25: 12-22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Menzel, D. W., E. M. Hulburt & J. H. Ryther, 1963. The effects of enriching Sargasso Sea water on the production and species composition of the phytoplankton. Deep Sea Res. 10: 209-219.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, C. B., 1993. Pelagic production processes in the subarctic Pacific. Progr. Oceanogr. 32: 1-15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milliman, J. D., 1997. Blessed dams or damned dams? Nature 386: 325-327.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miralto, A., G. Barone, G. Romano, S. A. Poulet, A. Ianora, G. L. Russo, I. Buttino, G. Mazzarella, M. Laabir, M. Cabrini & M. G. Glacobbe, 1999. The insidious effect of diatoms on copepod reproduction. Nature 402: 173-176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, D. M. & Q. Dortch, 1996. Silicic acid depletion and silicon limitation in the plume of the Mississippi River: evidence from kinetic studies in spring and summer. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 136: 163-178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, D. M. & J. J. Goering, 1977. A stable isotope tracer method to measure silicate uptake by marine phytoplankton. Anal. Biochem. 78: 139-147.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, D. M. & W. O. Smith, Jr., 1991. Sverdrup revisited: Critical depths, maximum chlorophyll levels, and the control of Southern Ocean productivity by the irradiance-mixing regime. Limnol. Oceanogr. 36: 1650-1662.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, D. M., J. J. Goering, S. S. Kilham & R. R. L. Guillard, 1976. Kinetics of silicic acid uptake and rates of silica dissolution in the marine diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana. J. Phycol. 12: 246-252.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, D. M., P. Tréguer, M. A. Brzezinski, A. Leynaert & B. Quéguiner, 1995. Production and dissolution of biogenic silica in the ocean: Revised global estimates, comparison with regional data and relationship to biogenic sedimentation. Global Biogeochem. Cycle 9: 359-372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nielsen, T. G. & T. Kiørboe, 1994. Regulation of zooplankton biomass and production in a temperate, coastal ecosystem. 2. Ciliates. Limnol. Oceanogr. 39: 508-519.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nixon, S. W., 1995. Coastal marine eutrophication: A definition, social causes, and future concerns. Ophelia 41: 199-219.

    Google Scholar 

  • Officer, C. B. & J. H. Ryther, 1980. The possible importance of silicon in marine eutrophication. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 3: 83-91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paasche, E., 1973. Silicon and the ecology of marine plankton diatoms. II. Silicate-uptake kinetics in five diatom species. Mar. Biol. 19: 262-269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paasche, E., 1975. Growth of the plankton diatom Thalassiosira nordenskioeldii Cleve at low silicate concentrations. J. exp. mar. Biol. Ecol. 18: 173-183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paasche, E., 1980a. Silicon. In Morris, I. (ed.), The Physiological Ecology of Phytoplankton. Blackwell, Oxford: 259-284.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paasche, E., 1980b. Silicon content of five marine plankton diatom species measured with a rapid filter method. Limnol. Oceanogr. 25: 474-480.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paasche, E. & I. Østergren, 1980. The annual cycle of plankton diatom growth and silica production in the inner Oslofjord. Limnol. Oceanogr. 25: 481-494.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, T. R., P. J. Harrison & R. Waters, 1978. An experimental simulation of changes in diatom and flagellate blooms. J. exp. mar. Biol. Ecol. 32: 285-294.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pierce, R. W. & J. T. Turner, 1992. Ecology of planktonic ciliates in marine food webs. Rev. Aquat. Sci. 6: 139-181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Probyn, T. A., 1992. The inorganic nitrogen nutrition of phytoplankton in the southern Benguela: New production, phytoplankton size and implications for pelagic foodwebs. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 12: 411-420.

    Google Scholar 

  • Radach, G., J. Berg & E. Hagmeier, 1990. Long-term changes of the annual cycles of meteorological, hydrographic, nutrient and phytoplankton time series at Helgoland and at LV ELBE 1 in the German Bight. Cont. Shelf Res 10: 305-328.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ragueneau, O. & P. Tréguer, 1994. Determination of biogenic silica in coastal waters: applicability and limits of the alkaline digestion method. Mar. Chem. 45: 43-51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Redfield, A. C., B. H. Ketchum & F. A. Richards, 1963. The influence of organisms on the composition of sea-water. In Hill, M. N. (ed.), The Sea. Vol. 2. Interscience Publishers, New York: 26-77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, K. & B. B. Jørgensen, 1996. Eutrophication: Definition, history and effects. In Jørgensen, B. B. & K. Richardson (eds), Eutrophication in Coastal Marine Ecosystems. American Geophysical Union, Washington: 1-19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Round, F. E., R. M. Crawford & D. G. Mann, 1990. The Diatoms. Biology & Morphology of the Genera. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 477 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryther, J. H., 1969. Photosynthesis and fish production in the sea. Science 166: 72-76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sakshaug, E. & S. Myklestad, 1973. Studies on the phytoplankton ecology of the Trondheimsfjord. III. Dynamics of phytoplankton blooms in relation to environmental factors, bioassay experiments and parameters for the physiological state of the populations. J. exp. mar. Biol. Ecol. 11: 157-188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seibold, E. & W. H. Berger, 1982. The Sea Floor. Springer, Berlin, 288 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shipe, R. F. & M. A. Brzezinski, 1999. A study of Si deposition synchrony in Rhizosolenia (Bacillariophyceae) mats using a novel 32Si autoradiographic method. J. Phycol. 35: 995-1004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smayda, T. J., 1980. Phytoplankton species succession. In Morris, I. (ed.), The Physiological Ecology of Phytoplankton. Blackwell, Oxford: 493-570.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smayda, T. J., 1990. Novel and nuisance phytoplankton blooms in the sea: evidence for a global epidemic. In Granéli, E., B. Sundström, L. Edler & D. M. Anderson (eds), Toxic Marine Phytoplankton. Elsevier, New York: 29-40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smayda, T. J., 1997. Harmful algal blooms: Their ecophysiology and general relevance to phytoplankton blooms in the sea. Limnol. Oceanogr. 42: 1137-1153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smetacek, V. S., 1986. Impact of freshwater discharge on production and transfer of materials in the marine environment. In Skreslet, S. (ed.), The Role of Freshwater Outflow in Coastal Marine Ecosystems. Springer-Verlag, Berlin: 85-106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sommer, U., 1994. Are marine diatoms favoured by high Si:N ratios? Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 115: 309-315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sommer, U., H. Stibor, A. Katechakis, F. Sommer & T. Hansen, 2002. Pelagic food web configurations at different levels of nutrient richness and their implications for the ratio fish production: primary production. Hydrobiologia 484/Dev. Hydrobiol. 167: 11-20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strickland, J. D. H. & T. R. Parsons, 1972. A practical handbook of seawater analysis. 2nd edn. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd Can. 167: 1-310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stumm, W. & J. J. Morgan, 1996. Aquatic Chemistry. 3rd edn. Wiley, New York, 1022 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Svensen, C., J. K. Egge & J. E. Stiansen, 2001. Can silicate and turbulence regulate the vertical flux of biogenic matter? A mesocosm study. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 217: 67-80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thingstad, T. F., E. F. Skjoldal & R. A. Bohne, 1993. Phosphorus cycling and algal-bacterial competition in Sandsfjord, western Norway. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 99: 239-259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tilman, D., S. S. Kilham & P. Kilman, 1982. Phytoplankton community ecology: The role of limiting nutrients. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 13: 349-372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tréguer, P., L. Lindner, A. J. Van Bennekom, A. Leynaert, M. Panouse & G. Jacques, 1991. Production of biogenic silica in the Weddell-Scotia Seas measured with 32Si. Limnol. Oceanogr. 36: 1217-1227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tréguer, P., D. M. Nelson, A. J. Van Bennekom, D. J. DeMaster, A. Leynaert & B. Quéguiner, 1995. The silica balance in the world ocean: A reestimate. Science 268: 375-379.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, R. E. & N. N. Rabalais, 1994. Coastal eutrophication near the Mississippi river delta. Nature 368: 619-621.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Bennekom, A. J., E. Krijgsman-van Hartingsveld, G. C. M. van der Veer & H. F. J. van Voorst, 1974. The seasonal cycles of reactive silicate and suspended diatoms in the Dutch Wadden Sea. Neth. J. Sea Res. 8: 174-207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Bennekom, A. J. & W. Salomons, 1980. Pathways of nutrients and organic matter from land to ocean through rivers. In Martin, J.-M., J. D. Burton & D. Eisma (eds), River Inputs to Ocean Systems. UNEP/UNESCO: 33-56.

  • Vollenweider, R. A., 1976. Advances in defining critical loading levels for phosphorus in lake eutrophication. Mem. 1st. Ital. Idrobiol. 33: 53-84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wahby, S. D. & N. F. Bishara, 1980. The effect of the river Nile on Mediterranean water, before and after the construction of the High Dam at Aswan. In Martin, J.-M., J. D. Burton & D. Eisma (eds), River Inputs to Ocean Systems. UNEP/UNESCO: 311-315.

  • Wasmund, N., G. Nausch & W. Matthäus, 1998. Phytoplankton spring blooms in the southern Baltic Sea-spatio-temporal development and long-term trends. J. Plankton Res. 20: 1099-1117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Werner, D., 1977. Silicate metabolism. In Werner, D. (ed.), The Biology of Diatoms. University of California Press, Berkeley: 110-149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wulff, F., A. Stigebrandt & L. Rahm, 1990. Nutrient dynamics of the Baltic Sea. Ambio 19: 126-133.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. NFH, Breivika, University of Tromsø, N-9037, Tromsø, Norway

    Svein Kristiansen

Authors
  1. Svein Kristiansen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Espen Edward Hoell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Kristiansen, S., Hoell, E.E. The importance of silicon for marine production* . Hydrobiologia 484, 21–31 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021392618824

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021392618824

Search

Navigation