Abstract
The influences of cultural control measures on invertebrate pests and their natural enemies in cereals (wheat, barley and oats) are described and discussed, with emphasis on the major pests in north-west Europe. Possibilities for additive and synergistic combinations of cultural measures are identified, together with opportunities for integrating cultural measures with chemical and biological control where appropriate. Recent studies confirm the central role of cultural control measures in integrated pest management and integrated production of cereal crops. However, cultural measures often have opposing effects on different pests as well as diseases and weeds, so that appropriate measures must be selected on the basis of an assessment of the risks from key pests, diseases and weeds. Crop rotation is not an important means of controlling cereal pests, but its use is recommended for control of cereal diseases and weeds, as well as pests of crops grown in rotation with cereals. Diversification of crops and non-crop habitats in predominantly cereal growing areas is thought to increase numbers of certain parasitoids and polyphagous predators of cereal pests. The presence of weeds or an intercrop in a field together with cereals may reduce the severity of aphid and slug damage to cereals. Trap cropping has not yet been adequately tested in wheat, barley or oats. Cover crops reduce damage by wheat bulb fly in a following wheat crop, but increase the risk of slug damage. Resistance to a wide range of cereal aphid species has been identified in wheat and barley, but in Europe, more emphasis is placed on selecting cultivars with resistance to cereal diseases rather than pest resistance. Resistance in wheat to wheat bulb fly and wheat blossom midge is recorded, and resistance to slug damage has been reported in some laboratory studies. Early sowing of winter cereals results in more damage by certain dipterous pests and increased numbers of the aphid vectors of barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV), but early sowing results in less damage by wheat bulb fly and slugs in autumn/winter and by late infestations of aphids in summer. Avoidance of ploughing results in reduced incidence of wheat bulb fly, yellow cereal fly and aphids, but increased numbers of slugs, wheat blossom midge and bibionid larvae. Avoidance of ploughing can result in greater numbers of certain polyphagous predators, particularly in the first weeks following crop establishment. The presence of straw residues results in increased slug populations, but reduced incidence of yellow cereal fly and wheat blossom midge. Preparation of fine, firm seedbeds discourages attack by slugs and wheat bulb fly on cereals. Drilling at slightly greater depth in rough cloddy seedbeds helps to protect wheat seeds from slug damage. Nitrogen fertiliser applied in spring can help cereal plants compensate for losses by wheat bulb fly or slugs. However, nitrogen applications tend to result in increased summer infestations of aphids.
Similar content being viewed by others
References cited
Altieri, M.A. (1991) The agro-ecology of temperate cereal fields: entomological implications. In L.G. Firbank, N. Carter, J.F. Darbyshire and G.R. Potts (eds) The Ecology of Temperate Cereal Fields. pp. 259-72, Oxford: Blackwell.
Baguette, M. and Hance, T. (1997) Carabid beetles and agricultural practices: influence of soil ploughing. Biological Agriculture and Horticulture 15, 185-90.
Barber, D. (1991) The State of Agriculture in the United Kingdom. Report to the Royal Agricultural Society of England. Stoneleigh Park: RASE, 77 pp.
Bardner, R. (1968) Wheat bulb fly, Leptohylemyia coarctata Fall. and its effect on the growth and yield of wheat. Annals of Applied Biology 61, 1-11.
Barker, P.S., McKenzie, R.I.H. and Czarnecki E. (1996) Incidence of damage to spring wheat by the orange wheat blossom midge in Manitoba during 1993. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Manitoba 51, 12-20.
Boller, E.F., Malavolta, C. and Jörg, E. (eds) (1997) Guidelines for integrated production of arable crops in Europe. Technical Guideline III, First Edition. IOBC WPRS Bulletin 20(5), 115 pp.
Booij, C.J.H. and Noorlander, J. (1992) Farming systems and insect predators. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 40, 125-35.
Bulson, H.A.J., Snaydon, R.W. and Stopes, C.E. (1990) Intercropping autumn-sown field beans and wheat: effects on weeds under organic conditions. In Organic and Low Input Agriculture. Monograph No. 45, pp. 55-62. Farnham, UK: British Crop Protection Council.
Burel, F. and Baudry, J. (1995) Farming landscapes and insects. In D.M. Glen, M.P. Greaves and H.M. Anderson (eds) Ecology and Integrated Arable Farming Systems, pp. 203-20. London: John Wiley and Sons.
Burn, A.J. (1987) Cereal crops. In A.J. Burn, T.H. Coaker and P.C. Jepson (eds) Integrated Pest Management, pp. 209-56. London: Academic Press.
Chen, D.G., Li, J.G., Peng, Q., Qi, X.Y. and Fu, T.Q. (1988) Investigation on wheat blossom midge. Insect Knowledge 25, 137-39.
Christian, D.G., Bacon, E.T.G., Brockie, D., Glen, D., Gutteridge, R.J. and Jenkyn, J.F. (1999) Interactions of straw disposal methods and direct drilling or cultivations on winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) grown on a clay soil. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 73, 297-309.
Clements, R.O., Kendall, D.A., Purvis, G., Thomas, T. and Koefoed, N. (1995) Clover: cereal bi-cropping. In Integrated Crop Protection: Towards Sustainability? Symposium Proceedings No. 63, pp. 75-78. Farnham, UK: British Crop Protection Council.
Coaker, T.H. (1987) Cultural methods: the crop. In A.J. Burn, T.H. Coaker and P.C. Jepson (eds) Integrated Pest Management, pp. 69-88. London: Academic Press.
Coaker, T.H. (1990) Intercropping for pest control. In Organic and Low Input Agriculture. Monograph No. 45, pp. 71-76. Farnham, UK: British Crop Protection Council.
Cook, R.T., Bailey, S.E.R. and McCrohan, C.R. (1996) Slug preferences for winter wheat cultivars and common agricultural weeds. Journal of Applied Ecology 33, 866-72.
Cook, R.T., Bailey, S.E.R. and McCrohan, C.R. (1997) The potential for common weeds to reduce slug damage to winter wheat: laboratory and field studies. Journal of Applied Ecology 34, 79-87.
D'Arcy-Burt, S. and Blackshaw, R.P. (1991) Bibionids (Diptera: Bibionidae) in agricultural land: a review of damage, benefits, natural enemies and control. Annals of Applied Biology 118, 695-708.
Davis, A.J. (1989) Effects of soil compaction on damage to wheat seeds by three pest species of slug. Crop Protection 8, 118-21.
Dennis, P. and Fry, G.L.A. (1992) Field margins: can they enhance natural enemy population densities and general arthropod diversity on farmland? Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 40, 95-115.
Dewar, A.M., Carter, N. and Powell, W. (1985) Assessment of resistance of commercial varieties of winter wheat to cereal aphids. Annals of Applied Biology 106: Supplement, Tests of Agrochemicals and Cultivars 6, 168-69.
Duffield, S.J., Bryson, R.J. and Young, J.E.B. (1997) The influence of nitrogen fertiliser on the population development of the cereal aphids Sitobion avenae (F.) and Metopolophium dirhodum (Wlk.) on field grown winter wheat. Annals of Applied Biology 130, 13-26.
Edwards, C.A. (1977) Investigations into the influence of agricultural practices on soil invertebrates. Annals of Applied Biology 87, 515-20.
Edwards, C.A. (1984) Changes in agricultural practice and their impact on soil organisms. In D. Jenkins (ed) Agriculture and the Environment. Proceedings of ITE Symposium No. 13, pp. 56-65. Cambridge: Institute of Terrestrial Ecology.
El Titi, A. (1991) The Lautenbach Project 1978-89: integrated wheat production on a commercial arable farm, south-west Germany. In L.G. Firbank, N. Carter, J.F. Darbyshire and G.R. Potts (eds) The Ecology of Temperate Cereal Fields pp. 399-411. Oxford: Blackwell.
El Titi, A., Boller, E.F. and Gendrier, J.P. (eds) (1993) Integrated production principles and guidelines. IOBC WPRS Bulletin 16(1), 96 pp.
El Titi, A. and Ipach, U. (1989) Soil fauna in sustainable agriculture: results of an integrated farming system at Lautenbach. Agriculture, Ecosystem and Environment 27, 561-72.
El Titi, A. and Landes, H. (1990) Integrated farming system of Lautenbach: a practical contribution toward sustainable agriculture in Europe. In Sustainable Agricultural Systems, pp. 265-86. Ankeny, Iowa, USA: Soil and Water Conservation Society.
Evans, K.A. and Spaull, A.M. (1996) Differential tolerance of winter wheat cultivars to grain hollowing by the grey field slug (Deroceras reticulatum): a laboratory study. In Slug and Snail Pests in Agriculture Symposium Proceedings No. 66, pp. 433-38. Farnham, UK: British Crop Protection Council.
Fadl, A. and Purvis, G. (1998) Field observations on the lifecycles and activity patterns of temperate carabid beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) inhabiting arable land. Pedobiologia 42, 171-83.
Foissner, W. (1992) Comparative studies on the soil life in ecofarmed and conventionally farmed fields and grasslands of Austria. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 40, 207-18.
Frank, T. (1998a) Slug damage and number of slugs (Gastropoda: Pulmonata) in winter wheat in fields with sown wildflower strips. Journal of Molluscan Studies 64, 319-28.
Frank, T. (1998b) Slug damage and numbers of the slug pests, Arion lusitanicus and Deroceras reticulatum, in oilseed rape grown beside sown wildflower strips. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 67, 67-78.
Fry, G. (1995) Landscape ecology of insect movement in arable ecosystems. In D.M. Glen, M.P. Greaves, and H.M. Anderson (eds) Ecology and Integrated Arable Farming Systems, pp. 177-202. London: John Wiley and Sons.
Fuentes-Contreras, J.E. and Niemeyer, H.M. (1998) DIMBOA glucoside, a wheat chemical defense, affects host acceptance and suitability of Sitobion avenae to the cereal aphid parasite Aphidius rhopalosiphi. Journal of Chemical Ecology 24, 371-81.
Fuentes-Contreras, J.E., Powell,W., Wadhams, L.J., Pickett, J.A. and Niemeyer, H.M. (1996) Influence of wheat and oat cultivars on the development of the cereal aphid parasitoid Aphidius rhopalosiphi and the generalist parasitoid Ephedrus plagiator. Annals of Applied Biology 129, 181-87.
Gair, R., Jenkins, J.E.E. and Lester, E. (1987) Cereal Pest and Diseases, 4th edn, Ipswich, UK: Farming Press, 268 pp.
Gebhardt, M.R., Daniel, T.C., Schweizer, E.E. and Allmaras, R.R. (1985) Conservation tillage. Science 230, 625-30.
George, S.K., Kendall, D.A., Clements, R.O. and Asteraki, E.J. (1995) Slug damage to clover and wheat grown singly and in mixtures. In Integrated Crop Protection: Towards Sustainability? Symposium Proceedings No. 63, pp. 139-42. Farnham, UK: British Crop Protection Council.
Givovich, A. and Niemeyer, H.M. (1991) Hydroxamic acids affecting barley yellow dwarf virus transmission by the aphid Ropalosiphum padi. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 59, 79-85.
Glen, D.M. (1989) Understanding and predicting slug problems in cereals. In Slugs and Snails in World Agriculture. Monograph No. 41, pp. 253-62. Thornton Heath: British Crop Protection Council.
Glen, D.M. and Jordan, V.W.L. (1992) The implications for pests and diseases of practices to reduce nitrate leaching. Aspects of Applied Biology 30, Nitrate and Farming Systems, 343-50.
Glen, D.M. and Wiltshire, C.W. (1986) Estimating slug populations from bait-trap catches. Proceedings of the 1986 British Crop Protection Conference-Pests and Diseases 3, 1151-58.
Glen, D.M., Wiltshire, C.W. and Milsom, N.F. (1984) Slugs and straw disposal in winter wheat. Proceedings of the 1984 British Crop Protection Conference-Pests and Diseases 1, 139-44.
Glen, D.M., Wiltshire, C.W. and Milsom, N.F. (1988) Effects of straw disposal on slug problems in cereals. Aspects of Applied Biology 17, Environmental Aspects of Applied Biology, Part 2, 173-79.
Glen, D.M., Milsom, N.F. and Wiltshire, C.W. (1989) Effects of seed-bed conditions on slug numbers and damage to winter wheat in a clay soil. Annals of Applied Biology 115, 177-90.
Glen, D.M., Milsom, N.F. and Wiltshire, C.W. (1990) Effect of seed depth on slug damage to winter wheat. Annals of Applied Biology 117, 693-701.
Glen, D.M., Wiltshire, C.W. and Butler, R.C. (1991) Slug population changes following molluscicide treatment in relation to distance from edge of treated area. Crop Protection 10, 408-12.
Glen, D.M., Wiltshire, C.W. and Langdon, C.J. (1992) Influence of seed depth and molluscicide pellet placement and timing on slug damage, activity and survival in winter wheat. Crop Protection 11, 555-60.
Glen, D.M., Spaull, A.M., Mowat, D.J., Green, D.B. and Jackson, A.W. (1993) Crop monitoring to assess the risk of slug damage to winter wheat in the United Kingdom. Annals of Applied Biology 122, 161-72.
Glen, D.M., Wiltshire, C.W., Wilson M.J., Kendall, D.A. and Symondson, W.O.C. (1994) Slugs in arable crops: key pests under CAP reform? Aspects of Applied Biology 40, Arable Farming under CAP Reform, 199-206.
Glen, D.M., Wiltshire, C.W., Walker, A.J., Wilson, M.J. and Shewry, P.R. (1996) Slug problems and control strategies in relation to crop rotations. Aspects of Applied Biology 47, Rotations and Cropping Systems, 153-60.
Gould, H.J. (1961) Observations on slug damage to winter wheat in East Anglia 1957-1959. Plant Pathology 10, 142-47.
Gratwick, M. (ed) (1992) Crop Pests in the UK. Collected edition of MAFF leaflets. London: Chapman and Hall, 490 pp.
Green, D.B., Corbett, S.J., Jackson, A.W. and Nowack, K.J. (1992) Surface versus admix applications of slug pellets to winter wheat. Proceedings of the Brighton Crop Protection Conference-Pests and Diseases, 1992, pp. 587-92.
Halley, J.M., Thomas, C.F.G. and Jepson, P.C. (1996) Amodel for the spatial dynamics of linyphiid spiders in farmland. Journal of Applied Ecology 33, 471-92.
Hancock, M., Ellis, S., Green, D.B. and Oakley, J.N. (1992) The effects of short-and long-term set-aside oncereal pests.In Set-Aside. Monograph No. 50, pp. 195-200. Farnham, UK: British Crop Protection Council.
Hassall, M., Hawthorne, A., Maudsley, M., White, P. and Cardwell, C. (1992) Effects of headland management on invertebrate communities in cereal fields. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 40, 155-78.
Holland, J.M. (1997) Impact of integrated farming husbandry practices on cereal pests and yield. Aspects of Applied Biology 50, Optimising Cereal Inputs: Its Scientific Basis, 2, 305-11.
Holland, J.M. and Thomas, S.R. (1997) Quantifying the impact of polyphagous invertebrate predators in controlling cereal aphids and in preventing wheat yield and quality reductions. Annals of Applied Biology 131, 375-97.
Holland, J.M., Drysdale, A., Hewitt, M.V. and Turley, D. (1996) The LINK IFS Project-the effect of crop rotations and cropping systems on Carabidae. Aspects of Applied Biology 47, Rotations and Cropping Systems, 153-60.
Hunter, P.J. (1967) The effect of cultivations on slugs of arable land. Plant Pathology 16, 153-56.
Huusela-Veistola E. (1996) Effects of pesticide use and cultivation techniques on ground beetles (Col, Carabidae) in cereal fields. Annales Zoologici Fennici 33, 197-205.
Inayatullah, C., Ehsanulhaq, M.N. and Chaudhry, M.F. (1993) Incidence of greenbug, Schizaphis graminum (Rondani) (Homoptera, Aphididae) in Pakistan and resistance in wheat against it. Insect Science and its Application 14, 247-54.
Javaid, I. and Joshi, J.M. (1995) Trap cropping in insect pest-management. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture 5, 117-36.
Jordan, V.W.L. and Hutcheon, J.A. (1996) Multifunctional crop rotation: the contribution and interactions for integrated crop protection and nutrient management in sustainable cropping systems. Aspects of Applied Biology 47, Rotations and Cropping Systems, 301-8.
Jordan, V.W.L., Hutcheon, J.A., Donaldson, G.V. and Farmer, D.P. (1997) Research into and development of integrated farming systems for less-intensive arable crop production: experimental progress (1989-1994) and commercial implementation. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 64, 141-48.
Kazemi, M.H. and Emden, H.F. van (1992) Partial antibiosis to Rhopalosiphum padi in wheat and some phytochemical correlations. Annals of Applied Biology 121, 1-9.
Kendall, D.A., Smith, B.D., Chinn, N.E. and Wiltshire, C.W. (1986) Cultivation, straw disposal and barley yellow dwarf virus infection in winter cereals. Proceedings of the 1986 British Crop Protection Conference-Pests and Diseases 3, 981-87.
Kendall, D.A., Chinn, N.E., Wiltshire, C.W. and Bassett, P. (1988) Effects of crop agronomy and agrochemical use on the incidence of barley yellow dwarf virus in autumn sown cereals. Aspects of Applied Biology 17, Environmental Aspects of Applied Biology, Part 2, 143-51.
Kendall, D.A., Chinn, N.E., Smith, B.D., Tidboald, C., Winstone, L. and Western, N.M. (1991) Effects of straw disposal and tillage on spread of barley yellow dwarf virus in winter barley. Annals of Applied Biology 119, 359-64.
Kendall, D.A., Brain, P. and Chinn, N.E. (1992) A simulation model of the epidemiology of barley yellow dwarf virus in winter sown cereals and its application to forecasting. Journal of Applied Ecology 29, 414-26.
Kendall, D.A., Chinn, N.E., Glen, D.M., Wiltshire, C.W., Winstone, L. and Tidboald, C. (1995) Effects of soil management on cereal pests and their natural enemies. In Glen, D.M., Greaves, M.P. and Anderson, H.M. (eds) Ecology and Integrated Arable Farming Systems, pp. 83-102. London: John Wiley and Sons.
Kennedy, P.J. (1990) The effects of molluscicides on the abundance and distribution of ground beetles (Coleoptera, Carabidae) and other invertebrates. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Bristol, 339 pp.
Kerry, B.R., Crump, D.H. and Mullen, L.A. (1982) Natural control of the cereal cyst nematode, Heterodera avenae Woll., by soil fungi at three sites. Crop Protection 1, 99-109.
Khan, Z.R., Ampong-Nyarko, K., Chiliswa, P., Hassanali, A., Kimani, S., Lwande, W., Overholt, W.A., Pickett, J.A., Smart, S.E., Wadhams, L.J. and Woodcock, C.M. (1997) Intercropping increases parasitism of pests. Nature 388, 631-32.
Kindler, S.D. and Springer, T.L. (1991) Resistance to Russian wheat aphid in wild Hordeum species. Crop Science 31, 94-7.
Kromp, B. and Steinberg, K.-H. (1992) Grassy field margins and arthropod diversity: a case study on ground beetles and spiders in eastern Austria (Coleoptera: Carabidae; Arachnida: Aranei, Opiliones). Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 40, 71-93.
Krooss, S. and Schaefer, M. (1998) The effect of different farming systems on epigeic arthropods: a five-year study on the rove beetle fauna (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) of winter wheat. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 69, 121-33.
Luff, M.L. (1987) Biology of polyphagous ground beetles in agriculture. Agricultural Zoology Reviews 2, 237-78.
Lupton, F.G.H. and Bingham, J. (1967) Resistance to wheat bulb fly. Report of the Plant Breeding Institute, Trumpington, 1965-66, pp. 57-8.
Lys, J.A. and Nentwig, W. (1992) Augmentation of bene-ficial arthropods by strip-management. 4. Surface activity, movements and activity density of abundant carabid beetles in a cereal field. Oecologia 92, 373-82.
Lys, L.A., Zimmerman, M. and Nentwig, W. (1994) Increase in activity density and species number of carabid beetles in cereals as result of strip-management. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 73, 1-9.
Mann, J.A., Harrington, R., Tatchell, G.M., Oakley, J.N., Tones, S., Ellis, S., Watling, M. and Walters, K. (1995) Determination of factors affecting grain aphid movement with reference to spread of BYDV in the autumn and winter and forecasting direct damage in the summer. H-GCA Report No. 110. London: Home-Grown Cereals Authority, 54 pp.
Mann, J.A., Harrington, R., Carter, N. and Plumb, R.T. (1997) Control of aphids and barley yellow dwarf virus in spring sown cereals. Crop Protection 16, 81-87.
Marshall, E.J.P. and Smith, B.D. (1987) Field margin flora and fauna; interaction with agriculture. In Field Margins. Monograph No. 35, pp. 23-33. Croydon, UK: British Crop Protection Council.
Martin, T.J. and Kelly, J.R. (1986) The effect of changing agriculture on slugs as pests of cereals. Proceedings of the 1986 British Crop Protection Conference-Pests and Diseases 2, 411-24.
Moens, R. (1989) Factors affecting slug damage and control measure decisions. In Slugs and Snails in World Agriculture.Monograph No. 41, pp. 227-236. Thornton Heath, UK: British Crop Protection Council.
Nicol, D., Copaja, S.V., Wratten, S.D. and Niemeyer, H.M. (1992) A screen of worldwide wheat cultivars for hydroxamic acid levels and aphid antixenosis. Annals of Applied Biology 121, 11-18.
Niemeyer, H.M., Givovich, A. and Copaja, S.V. (1993) Hydroxamic acids: chemical defences in wheat against aphids. In S. Corey, D. Dall and W. Milne (eds) Pest Control and Sustainable Agriculture, pp. 39-43. East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia: CSIRO.
Nietolopez, R.M. and Blake, T.K. (1994) Russian wheat aphid resistance in barley-inheritance and linked molecular markers. Crop Science 34, 655-59.
Oakley, J.N., Young, J.E.B., Cousins, S.F.B., Frost, M. and Froment, M. (1990) Investigation of the biology and control of gout fly (Chlorops pumilionis) in autumn and spring sown cereals. Proceedings of the Brighton Crop Protection Conference-Pest and Diseases 1990 2, 709-14.
Pickett, J.A. (1991) Pheromones: will their promise in insect pest control ever be achieved? Bulletin of Entomological Research 81, 229-32.
Pickett, J.A., Wadhams, L.J. and Woodcock, C.M. (1991) New approaches to the development of semiochemicals for insect control. Proceedings of a Conference on Insect Chemical Ecology, Tábor 1990, pp. 333-45. The Hague: Academia Prague and SPB Academic Publishers.
Pimentel, D. (1986) Agroecology and economics. In M. Cogan (ed) Ecological Theory and Integrated Pest Management Practice. pp. 299-319. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Pimentel, D. (1993) Cultural controls for insect pest management. In S. Corey, D. Dall and W. Milne (eds) Pest Control and Sustainable Agriculture, pp. 39-43. East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia: CSIRO.
Port, C.M. and Port, G.R. (1986) The biology and behaviour of slugs in relation to crop damage and control. Agricultural Zoology Reviews 1, 255-99.
Powell, W., Dean, G.J. and Dewar, A. (1985) The influence of weeds on polyphagous arthropod predators in winter wheat. Crop Protection 4, 298-312.
Powell, W., Dean, G.J. and Wilding, N. (1986) The influence of weeds on aphid-specific natural enemies in winter wheat. Crop Protection 5, 182-89.
Prew, R.D., Ashby, J.E., Bacon, E.T.G., Christian, D.G., Guttridge, R.J., Jenkyn, J.F., Powell,W. and Todd, A.D. (1995) Effects of incorporating of burning straw, and of different cultivation systems, on winter wheat grown on two soil types, 1985-91. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 124, 173-94.
Purvis, G. (1996) The hazard posed by methiocarb pellets to carabid beetles: understanding population effects in the field. In Slug and Snail Pests in Agriculture. BCPC Symposium Proceedings No. 66, pp. 189-96. Farnham, Surrey: British Crop Protection Council.
Purvis, G. and Bannon, J.W. (1992) Non-target effects of repeated methiocarb slug pellet application on carabid beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae) activity in winter-sowncereals. Annals of Applied Biology 121, 401-22.
Raw, F.E. (1955) The effect of soil conditions on wheat bulb fly oviposition. Plant Pathology 4, 114-17.
Raw, F.E. (1967) Some aspects of the wheat bulb fly problem. Annals of Applied Biology 59, 155-73.
Rice, M.E. and Wilde, G.E. (1991) Aphid predators associated with conventional-and conservation-tillage winter wheat. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 64, 245-50.
Root, R.B. (1973) Organisation of a plant arthropod association in simple and diverse habitats: the fauna of collards, Brassica oleracea. Ecological Monographs.
Sherratt, T.N. and Jepson, P.C. (1993) A metapopulation approach to modelling the long-term impact of pesticides on invertebrates. Journal of Applied Ecology 30, 696-705.
Short, M. (1981) Damage assessment and chemical control of a grass and cereal fly (Opomyza florum). Proceedings of the 1981 British Crop Protection Conference-Pests and Diseases 2, 431-40.
Short, M. (1982) Decision making in cereal pest control.In Decision Making in the Practice of Crop Protection.Monograph No. 25 pp. 121-32. Thornton Heath, UK: British Crop Protection Council.
Sotherton, N.W. (1984) The distribution and abundance of predatory arthropods overwintering on farmland. Annals of Applied Biology 105, 423-29.
Sotherton, N.W. (1985) The distribution and abundance of predatory Coleoptera overwintering in field boundaries. Annals of Applied Biology 106, 17-21.
Spaull, A.M. and Davies, D.H.K. (1992) Research on slug behaviour. Part II. Cultural methods to reduce slug damage to cereals. H-GCA Project Report No. 53, Part II. Home-Grown Cereals Authority, London, 18 pp.
Spaull, A.M. and Eldon, S. (1990) Is it possible to limit slug damage using choice of winter wheat cultivars? Proceedings of the Brighton Crop Protection Conference-Pests and Diseases 1990 2, 703-8.
Stephenson, J.W. (1975) Laboratory observations on the effects of soil consolidation on slug damage to winter wheat. Plant Pathology 24, 9-11.
Stephenson, J.W. and Bardner, R. (1977) Slugs in agriculture. In Rothamsted Experimental Station Report for 1976, Part 2, pp. 169-87.
Symondson, W.O.C., Glen, D.M., Wiltshire, C.W., Langdon, C.J. and Liddell, J.E. (1996) Effects of cultivation techniques and methods of straw disposal on predation by Pterostichus melanarius (Coleoptera: Carabidae) upon slugs (Gastropoda: Pulmonata) in an arable field. Journal of Applied Ecology 33, 741-53.
Thackray, D.J., Wratten, S.D., Edwards, P.J. and Niemeyer, H.M. (1990) Resistance to the aphids Sitobion avenae and Rhopalosiphum padi in Gramineae in relation to hydroxamic acid levels. Annals of Applied Biology 116, 573-82.
Thomas, C.F.G. and Jepson, P.C. (1997) Field-scale effects of farming practices on linyphiid spider populations in grass and cereals. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 84, 59-69.
Thomas, M.B., Wratten, S.D. and Sotherton, N.W. (1991) Creation of 'island' habitats in farmland to manipulate populations of beneficial arthropods: predator densities and emigration. Journal of Applied Ecology 28, 906-17.
Topping, C.J. and Sunderland, K.D. (1994) A spatial population dynamics model for Lepthyphantes tenuis (Araneae: Linyphiidae) with some simulations of the spatial and temporal effects of farming operations and land use. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 48, 203-17.
van der Westhuisen, A.J., Qian, X.M. and Botha, A.M. (1998) Beta-1,3-glucanases in wheat and resistance to the Russian wheat aphid. Physiologia Plantarium 103, 125-31.
van Emden, H.F. (1987) Cultural methods: the plant. In A.J. Burn, T.H. Coaker and P.C. Jepson (eds) IntegratedPestManagement. pp. 27-68. London: Academic Press.
van Emden, H.F. (1991) The role of host plant resistance in insect pest mis-management. Bulletin of Entomological Research 81, 123-26.
Vickerman, G.P. (1974) The effects of straw-burning on invertebrates. In Strawburning and its Effects on Wildlife, pp. 7-11.Fordingbridge, Hampshire, UK: Game Conservancy Trust.
Walter, U., Hermann, D. and Hurle, K. (1993) Flachenstillegung: Auswirkungen der Rotationsbrache auf Schnecken, Nematoden und Getreidefusskrankheiten. Gesunde Pflanzen 45, 207-16.
Way, M.J. (1988) Entomology of wheat. In M. K. Harris and C.E. Rodgers (eds) The Entomology of Indigenous and Naturalized Systems in Agriculture pp. 183-206. Boulder, USA: Westview Press.
Weiss, M.J., Balsbaugh, E.U., French, E.W. and Hoag, B.K. (1990) Influence of tillage management and cropping system on ground beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae) fauna in the northern great plains. Environmental Entomology 19, 1388-91.
Wellings, P.W., Hughes, R.D. and Martinelle, G. (1993) Screening Australian wheat cultivars for resistance to the Russian wheat aphid, Diuraphis noxia (Mordwilko). In S. Corey, D. Dall and W. Milne (eds) Pest Control and Sustainable Agriculture, pp. 317-19. East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia: CSIRO.
Wibberley, E.J. (1989) Cereal Husbandry. Ipswich: Farming Press, 258 pp.
Wilkinson, W. (1977) Effects of direct drilling on soil microarthropods. Annals of Applied Biology 87, 520.
Wilson, M.J., Glen, D.M., George, S.K., Pearce J.D. and Wiltshire, C.W. (1994) Biological control of slugs in winter wheat using the rhabditid nematode Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita. Annals of Applied Biology 125, 377-90.
Wilson, M.J., Hughes, L.A., Hamacher, G.M., Barahona, L.D. and Glen, D.M. (1996) Effects of soil incorporation on the efficacy of the rhabditid nematode, Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita, as a biological control agent for slugs. Annals of Applied Biology 128, 117-26.
Winstone, L., Iles, D.R. and Kendall, D.A. (1996) Effects of crop rotation and cultivation on polyphagous predators in conventional and integrated farming systems. Aspects of Applied Biology 47, Rotations and Cropping Systems, 111-18.
Wratten, S.D. and Powell, W. (1991) Cereal aphids and their natural enemies. In L.G. Firbank, N. Carter, J.F. Darbyshire and G.R. Potts (eds) The Ecology of Temperate Cereal Fields, pp. 233-57. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.
Wratten, S.D. and Thomas, M.B. (1990) Environmental manipulation for the encouragement of natural enemies of pests. In R. Unwin (ed) Crop Protection in Organic and Low Input Agriculture Monograph No. 45, pp. 87-92. Farnham, UK: British Crop Protection Council.
Wratten, S.D. and van Emden, H.F. (1995) Habitat management for enhanced activity of natural enemies of insect pests. In Glen, D.M., Greaves, M.P. and Anderson, H.M. (eds) Ecology and Integrated Arable Farming Systems, pp. 117-45. London: John Wiley and Sons.
Young, J.E.B. (1992a) Control of wheat bulb fly in winter wheat. I. Chemical methods. II.Varietal susceptibility. H-GCA Project Report No. 67. Home-Grown Cereals Authority, London, 76 pp.
Young, J.E.B. (1992b) Recent studies on chemical and cultural control of wheat bulb fly. Proceedings of the Brighton Crop Protection Conference-Pests and Diseases 1992, 539-44.
Young, J.E.B. and Cochrane, J. (1993) Changes in wheat bulb fly (Delia coarctata) populations in East Anglia in relation to crop rotations, climatic data and damage forecasting. Annals of Applied Biology 123, 485-98.
Young, J.E.B. and Ellis (1996) Impact of changes in arable agriculture on the biology and control of wheat bulb fly. H-GCA Research Review No. 33. Home-Grown Cereals Authority, London, 103 pp.
Zangger, A., Lys, J.A. and Nentwig, W. (1994) Increasing the availability of food and the reproduction of Poecilus cupreus in a cereal field by strip management. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 71, 111-20.
Zhou, X. and Carter, N. (1992) The effects of nitrogen and fungicide on cereal aphid population development and the consequences for the aphid-yield relationship in winter wheat. Annals of Applied Biology 119, 433-41.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Glen, D.M. The Effects of Cultural Measures on Cereal Pests and Their Role in Integrated Pest Management. Integrated Pest Management Reviews 5, 25–40 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009609504464
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009609504464