Abstract
Richard Lewontin's (1970) early work on the “units” of selection initiated the conceptual and theoretical investigations that have led to the hierarchical perspective on selection that has reached near consensus status today. This paper explores other aspects of his work, work on what he termed “continuity” and “quasi-independence”, that connect to contemporary explorations of modularity in development and evolution. I characterize such modules and argue that they are the true units of selection in that they are what evolution by natural selection individuates, selects among, and transforms.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Altenberg, L.: 1995, 'Genome Growth and the Evolution of the Genotype-phenotype Map', in W. Banzhaf and F. H. Eeckman (eds.), Evolution and Biocomputation: Computational Models of Evolution, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 205-259.
Bonner, J. T.: 1988, The Evolution of Complexity, Princeton University Press, Princeton.
Brandon, R. N.: 1982, 'The Levels of Selection', in P. Asquith and T. Nickles (eds.), PSA 1982, Vol. 1, Philosophy of Science Association, East Lansing, MI, pp. 315-323.
Brandon, R. N.: 1990, Adaptation and Environment, Princeton University Press, Princeton.
Brandon, R. N.: 1997, 'Discussion: Reply to Hitchcock', Biology and Philosophy 12, 531-538.
Brandon, R. N.: forthcoming, 'Organism and Environment Revisited', in R. Singh, D. Paul, C. Krimbas and J. Beatty (eds.), Thinking about Evolution: Historical, Philosophical, and Political Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Brandon, R. N. and Burian, R. M. (eds.): 1984, Genes, Organisms, Populations: Controversies Over the Units of Selection, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Brandon, R. N., Antonovics, J., Burian, R., Carson, S., Cooper, G., Davies, P. S., Horvath, C., Mishler, B. D., Richardson, R. C., Smith, K. and Thrall, P.: 1994, 'Discussion: Sober on Brandon on Screening-off and the Levels of Selection', Philosophy of Science 61, 475-486.
Brandon, R. N. and Antonovics, J.: 1996, 'The Coevolution of Organism and Environment', in R. N. Brandon, Concepts and Methods in Evolutionary Biology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 161-178.
Darwin, C.: 1871, The Descent of Man, John Murray, London.
Dawkins, R.: 1976, The Selfish Gene, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Dawkins, R.: 1982, 'Replicators and Vehicles', in King's College Sociobiology Group (eds.), Current Problems in Sociobiology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 45-64.
Dawkins, R.: 1989, 'The Evolution of Evolvability', in C. G. Langton (ed.), Artificial Life, the Proceedings of an Interdisciplinary Workshop on the Synthesis and Simulation of Living Systems, Addison-Wesley, Redwood City, CA, pp.
Holland, J. H.: 1992, Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Hull, D.: 1981, 'Units of Evolution: A Metaphysical Essay', in U. L. Jensen and R. Harré (eds.), The Philosophy of Evolution, Harvester Press, Brighton.
Kauffman, S. A.: 1989, 'Adaptation on Rugged Fitness Landscapes', in D. Stein (ed.), Lectures in the Science of Complexity, Vol. 1, Addison-Wesley, Longman, Reading, MA, pp. 527-618.
Lewontin, R. C.: 1970, 'The Units of Selection', Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 1, 1-18.
Lewontin, R. C.: 1974, The Genetic Basis of Evolutionary Change, Columbia University Press, New York.
Lewontin, R. C.: 1978; 'Adaptation', Scientific American 239, 156-169.
Lewontin, R. C.: 1983a, 'Gene, Organism and Environment', in D. S. Bendall (ed.), Evolution from Molecules to Men, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 273-285.
Lewontin, R. C.: 1983b, 'The Organism as the Subject and Object of Evolution', Scientia 118, 63-82.
Lloyd, E. A.: 1998, The Structure and Confirmation of Evolutionary Theory, Greenwood Press, New Your.
Mayr, E.: 1954, 'Change of Genetic Environment and Evolution', in J. S. Huxley, A. C. Hardy and E. B. Ford (eds.), Evolution as a Process, Allen & Unwin, London, pp. 157-180.
Mayr, E.: 1963, Animal Species and Evolution, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
Nijhout, H. F.: 1991, The Development and Evolution of Butterfly Wing Patterns, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
Nijhout, H. F.: 1994, 'Symmetry Systems and Compartments in Lepidopteran Wings: The Evolution of a Patterning Mechanism', Development Supplement, 225-233.
Quine, W. V.: 1969, 'Natural Kinds', in W. V. Quine, Ontological Relativity and Other Essays, Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 114-138.
Sober, E. and Lewontin, R. C.: 1982, 'Artifact, Cause and Genic Selection', Philosophy of Science 49, 157-180.
Sober, E. and Wilson, D. S.: 1994, 'A Critical Review of Philosophical Work on the Units of Selection Problem', Philosophy of Science 61, 534-555.
Szathmáry, E. and Maynard Smith, J.: 1997, 'From Replicators to Reproducers: The First Major Transitions Leading to Life', Journal of Theoretical Biology 187, 555-571.
Wagner, G. P.: 1995, 'The Biological Role of Homologues: A Building Block Hypothesis', N. Jb. Geol. Paläont. Abh. 19, 279-288.
Wagner, G. P.: 1996, 'Homologues, Natural Kinds and the Evolution of Modularity', American Zoologist 36, 36-43.
Wagner, G. P. and Altenberg, L.: 1996, 'Perspective: Complex Adaptations and the Evolution of Evolvability', Evolution 50, 967-976.
Williams, G. C.: 1966, Adaptation and Natural Selection, Princeton University Press, Princeton.
Wimsatt, W. C.: 1980, 'Reductionistic Research Strategies and their Biases in the Units of Selection Controversy', in T. Nickles (ed.), Scientific Discovery, Volume II, Historical and Scientific Case Studies, Reidel, Dordrecht, pp. 213-259.
Wimsatt, W. C.: 1981, 'The Units of Selection and the Structure of the Multi-level Genome', in P. D. Asquith and R. N. Giere (eds.), PSA 1980, Vol. 2, Philosophy of Science Association, East Lansing, MI, pp. 122-183.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Brandon, R.N. The Units of Selection Revisited: The Modules of Selection. Biology & Philosophy 14, 167–180 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006682200831
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006682200831