Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Flavor impacts of glycerol in the processing of yeast fermented beverages: a review

  • Review
  • Published:
Journal of Food Science and Technology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Glycerol contributes to the beverage body and fullness. Moreover, it also influences the flavor intensity. As a major byproduct, glycerol not only serves critical roles in yeast osmoregulation and redox balancing, but also acts as the carbon competitor against ethanol in alcoholic fermentation. Therefore, increasing glycerol yield benefits both the flavor and ethanol reduction for the fermented beverages. Glycerol yield has been elevated either by fermentation optimization or by yeast genetic modification. The fermentation optimizations reached maximum 14 g/L glycerol through screening yeast strains and optimizing fermentation parameters. Meanwhile the yeast overexpressing GPD1 (encoding glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase) produced up to 6 folds more glycerol for beer and wine. Except for glycerol improvement, the genetically modified yeasts accumulated dramatically undesirable compounds such as acetaldehyde, acetate and acetoin which are detrimental for beverage flavor. In comparison, the natural high glycerol producers showed strain-specific manner on the yeast-derived aroma compounds like volatile acids, fusel alcohols, esters, and aldehydes. Temperature, sugar concentration, nitrogen composition, oxygen and pH-value, which influence glycerol biosynthesis, also obtained various effects on the production of aromatic compounds. In the current review, we firstly deliberate the organoleptic contributions of glycerol for fermented beverages. Furthermore, glycerol optimization strategies are discussed regarding to the yield improvement, the genes expressions, the overall flavor impacts and the feasibilities in beverage applications. Lastly, for improving beverage flavor by glycerol optimization, a high-throughput platform is proposed to increase the screening capacity of yeast strains and parameters in the processing of fermented beverages.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Albers E, Larsson C, Lidén G, Niklasson C, Gustafsson L (1996) Influence of the nitrogen source on Saccharomyces cerevisiae anaerobic growth and product formation. Appl Environ Microbiol 62:3187–3195

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Albertyn J, Hohmann S, Thevelein JM, Prior BA (1994) GPD1, which encodes glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, is essential for growth under osmotic stress in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and its expression is regulated by the high-osmolarity glycerol response pathway. Mol Cell Biol 14:4135–4144. doi:10.1128/mcb.14.6.4135

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ansell R, Adler L (1999) The effect of iron limitation on glycerol production and expression of the isogenes for NAD+ − dependent glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. FEBS Lett 461:173–177. doi:10.1016/S0014-5793(99)01456-8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ansell R, Granath K, Hohmann S, Thevelein JM, Adler L (1997) The two isoenzymes for yeast NAD+ − dependent glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase encoded by GPD1 and GPD2 have distinct roles in osmoadaptation and redox regulation. EMBO J 16:2179–2187

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arroyo-López FN, Pérez-Torrado R, Querol A, Barrio E (2010) Modulation of the glycerol and ethanol syntheses in the yeast Saccharomyces kudriavzevii differs from that exhibited by Saccharomyces cerevisiae and their hybrid. Food Microbiol 27:628–637

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berlot M, Berovič M (2011) Saccharomyces cerevisiae inoculum heat shock treatment - new method for enhanced glycerol production in wine. Chem Biochem Eng Q 25:241–245

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berovič M, Pivec A, Košmerl T, Wondra M, Čelan Š (2007) Influence of heat shock on glycerol production in alcohol fermentation. J Biosci Bioeng 103:135–139. doi:10.1263/jbb.103.135

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bjorkqvist S, Ansell R, Adler L, Liden G (1997) Physiological response to anaerobicity of glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase mutants of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Appl Environ Microbiol 63:128–132

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Briggs DE, Boulton CA, Brookes PA, Stevens R (2004) Brewing science and practice. Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Abington

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Cambon B, Monteil V, Remize F, Camarasa C, Dequin S (2006) Effects of GPD1 overexpression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae commercial wine yeast strains lacking ALD6 genes. Appl Environ Microbiol 72:4688–4694. doi:10.1128/aem.02975-05

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen S, Xu Y (2010) The influence of yeast strains on the volatile flavour compounds of Chinese rice wine. J I Brewing 116:190–196. doi:10.1002/j.2050-0416.2010.tb00417.x

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cordier H, Mendes F, Vasconcelos I, Francois JM (2007) A metabolic and genomic study of engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains for high glycerol production. Metab Eng 9:364–378. doi:10.1016/j.ymben.2007.03.002

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Csutorás C, Hudák O, Rácz K, Rácz L (2014) Technological experiments for the enhancement of glycerol content in high quality wines. J Agric Chem Environ 03:48–52. doi:10.4236/jacen.2014.32B008

    Google Scholar 

  • del Campo G, Santos JI, Berregi I, Velasco S, Ibarburu I, Dueñas MT, Irastorza A (2003) Ciders produced by two types of presses and fermented in stainless steel and wooden vats. J I Brewing 109:342–348. doi:10.1002/j.2050-0416.2003.tb00608.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Du G, Zhan JC, Li JY, You YL, Zhao Y, Huang WD (2011) Effect of fermentation temperature and culture medium on glycerol and ethanol during wine fermentation. Am J Enol Vitic 63:132–138. doi:10.5344/ajev.2011.11067

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eglinton JM, Heinrich AJ, Pollnitz AP, Langridge P, Henschke PA, de Barros LM (2002) Decreasing acetic acid accumulation by a glycerol overproducing strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae by deleting the ALD6 aldehyde dehydrogenase gene. Yeast 19:295–301. doi:10.1002/yea.834

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ehsani M, Fernández MR, Biosca JA, Julien A, Dequin S (2009) Engineering of 2,3-butanediol dehydrogenase to reduce acetoin formation by glycerol-overproducing, low-alcohol Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Appl Environ Microbiol 75:3196–3205. doi:10.1128/aem.02157-08

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Erasmus DJ, Cliff M, van Vuuren HJJ (2004) Impact of yeast strain on the production of acetic acid, glycerol, and the sensory attributes of icewine. Am J Enol Vitic 55:371–378

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Estévez P, Gil ML, Falqué E (2004) Effects of seven yeast strains on the volatile composition of Palomino wines. Int J Food Sci Technol 39:61–69. doi:10.1046/j.0950-5423.2003.00755.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gardner N, Rodrigue N, Champagne CP (1993) Combined effects of sulfites, temperature, and agitation time on production of glycerol in grape juice by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Appl Environ Microbiol 59:2022–2028

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gawel R, Sluyter SV, Waters EJ (2007) The effects of ethanol and glycerol on the body and other sensory characteristics of Riesling wines. Aust J Grape Wine R 13:38–45. doi:10.1111/j.1755-0238.2007.tb00070.x

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gehlhoff R, Piendl A (1973) Glycerin im Bier. Teil II: Beeinflussung durch technologische Maßnahmen. Monatsschr Brauwiss 26:183–188

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson BR, Storgards E, Krogerus K, Vidgren V (2013) Comparative physiology and fermentation performance of Saaz and Frohberg lager yeast strains and the parental species Saccharomyces eubayanus. Yeast 30:255–266

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hohmann S, Krantz M, Nordlander B (2007) Yeast osmoregulation. Methods in enzymology 428:29–45. doi:10.1016/S0076-6879(07)28002-4

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hollowood TA, Linforth RST, Taylor AJ (2002) The effect of viscosity on the perception of flavour. Chem Senses 27:583–591. doi:10.1093/chemse/27.7.583

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson RS (2008) Fermentation. In: Jackson RS (ed) Wine science, 3rd edn. Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 332–417

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Jiménez-Martí E, Gomar-Alba M, Palacios A, Ortiz-Julien A, del Olmo M-l (2011) Towards an understanding of the adaptation of wine yeasts to must: relevance of the osmotic stress response. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 89:1551–1561. doi:10.1007/s00253-010-2909-4

  • Jones PR, Gawel R, Francis IL, Waters EJ (2008) The influence of interactions between major white wine components on the aroma, flavour and texture of model white wine. Food Qual Prefer 19:596–607. doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2008.03.005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kajiwara Y, Ogawa K, Takashita H, Omori T (2000) Enhanced glycerol production in Shochu yeast by heat-shock treatment is due to prolonged transcription of GPD1. J Biosci Bioeng 90:121–123

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaur M, Sharma HK, Patil S, Shitandi A (2013) Optimization of ethanol concentration, glycerol concentration and temperature conditions of grape-mahua wine to maximize the quality and overall acdeptability. JMBFS 2:2426–2430

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kukec A, Berovic M, Wondra M, Celan S, Kosmerl T (2003) Influence of temperature shock on the glycerol production in cv. Sauvignon blanc fermentation Vitis 42:205–206

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kutyna DR, Varela C, Henschke PA, Chambers PJ, Stanley GA (2010) Microbiological approaches to lowering ethanol concentration in wine. Trends Food Sci Technol 21:293–302. doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2010.03.004

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Langstaff SA, Guinard JX, Lewis MJ (1991) Instrumental evaluation of the mouthfeel of beer and correlation with sensory evaluation. J I Brewing 97:427–433

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu D et al. (2014) Effect of temperature on Chinese rice wine brewing with high concentration presteamed whole sticky rice. Biomed Res Int 2014:8. doi:10.1155/2014/426929

    Google Scholar 

  • Llaurado JM, Rozes N, Constanti M, Mas A (2005) Study of some Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains for winemaking after preadaptation at low temperatures. J Agric Food Chem 53:1003–1011. doi:10.1021/jf049324n

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lopes MB, ATA u-R, Gockowiak H, Heinrich AJ, Langridge P, Henschke PA (2000) Fermentation properties of a wine yeast over-expressing the Saccharomyces cerevisiae glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase gene (GPD2). Aust J Grape Wine R 6:208–215. doi:10.1111/j.1755-0238.2000.tb00181.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lubbers S, Verret C, Voilley A (2001) The effect of glycerol on the perceived aroma of a model wine and a white wine. Lebensm Wiss Technol 34:262–265. doi:10.1006/fstl.2001.0766

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Michnick S, Roustan J-L, Remize F, Barre P, Dequin S (1997) Modulation of glycerol and ethanol yields during alcoholic fermentation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains overexpressed or disrupted for GPD1 encoding glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase. Yeast 13:783–793. doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0061(199707)13:9<783::aid-yea128>3.0.co;2-w

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Myers DK, Lawlor DTM, Attfield PV (1997) Influence of invertase activity and glycerol synthesis and retention on fermentation of media with a high sugar concentration by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Appl Environ Microbiol 63:145–150

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nawar W (1971) Variables affecting composition of headspace aroma. J Agric Food Chem 19:1057–1059. doi:10.1021/jf60178a003

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nevoigt E, Stahl U (1996) Reduced pyruvate decarboxylase and increased glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase [NAD+] levels enhance glycerol production in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Yeast 12:1331–1337. doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0061(199610)12:13<1331::aid-yea28>3.0.co;2-0

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nevoigt E et al. (2002) Genetic engineering of brewing yeast to reduce the content of ethanol in beer. FEMS Yeast Res 2:225–232. doi:S1567-1356(02)00076-4

  • Nieuwoudt HH, Prior BA, Pretorius IS, Bauer FF (2002) Glycerol in South African table wines: an assessment of its relationship to wine quality. S Afr J Enol Vitic 23:22–30

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Noble AC (1996) Taste–aroma interactions. Trends Food Sci Technol 7:439–444. doi:10.1016/S0924-2244(96)10044-3

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Noble AC, Bursick GF (1984) The contribution of glycerol to perceived viscosity and sweetness in white wine. Am J Enol Vitic 35:110–112

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nurgel C, Pickering G (2005) Contribution of glycerol, ethanol and sugar to the perception of viscosity and density elicited by model white wines. J Texture Stud 36:303–323. doi:10.1111/j.1745-4603.2005.00018.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nykänen L, Suomaleinen H (1983) Aroma of beer, wine and distilled alcoholic beverages. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • Omori T, Iwata T, Umemoto Y, Tsujimoto S, Shimoda M, Hatate Y (1994) Effects of glycerol in mash on flavor components of barley Shochu. J Brew Soc Jpn 89:726–731

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Omori T, Iwata T, Umemoto Y, Shimoda M (1995) Improvement of barley shochu flavor by controlling the glycerol concentration in the mash. J Ferment Bioeng. doi:10.1016/0922-338X(96)87750-6

    Google Scholar 

  • Omori T, Ogawa K, Umemoto Y, Yuki K, Kajihara Y, Shimoda M, Wada H (1996) Enhancement of glycerol production by brewing yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) with heat shock treatment. J Ferment Bioeng 82:187–190. doi:10.1016/0922-338X(96)85048-3

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Omori T, Umemoto Y, Ogawa K, Kajiwara Y, Shimoda M, Wada H (1997) A novel method for screening high glycerol- and ester-producing brewing yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) by heat shock treatment. J Ferment Bioeng 83:64–69. doi:10.1016/S0922-338X(97)87329-1

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Orlic S, Arroyo-Lopez FN, Huic-Babic K, Lucilla I, Querol A, Barrio E (2010) A comparative study of the wine fermentation performance of Saccharomyces paradoxus under different nitrogen concentrations and glucose/fructose ratios. J Appl Microbiol 108:73–80

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Overkamp KM, Bakker BM, Kotter P, van Tuijl A, de Vries S, van Dijken JP, Pronk JT (2000) In vivo analysis of the mechanisms for oxidation of cytosolic NADH by Saccharomyces cerevisiae mitochondria. J Bacteriol 182:2823–2830. doi:10.1128/jb.182.10.2823-2830.2000

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Påhlman AK, Granath K, Ansell R, Hohmann S, Adler L (2001) The yeast glycerol 3-phosphatases gpp1p and gpp2p are required for glycerol biosynthesis and differentially involved in the cellular responses to osmotic, anaerobic, and oxidative stress. J Biol Chem 276:3555–3563. doi:10.1074/jbc.M007164200

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Panadero J, Pallotti C, Rodriguez-Vargas S, Randez-Gil F, Prieto JA (2006) A downshift in temperature activates the high osmolarity glycerol (HOG) pathway, which determines freeze tolerance in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Biol Chem 281:4638–4645. doi:10.1074/jbc.M512736200

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Parker WE, Richardson PJ (1970) The quantitative determination of glycerol in beer by gas–liquid chromatography. J I Brewing 76:191–198

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peleg H, Gacon K, Schlich P, Noble AC (1999) Bitterness and astringency of flavan-3-ol monomers, dimers and trimers. J Sci Food Agric 79:1123–1128. doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0010(199906)79:8<1123::aid-jsfa336>3.0.co;2-d

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perpete P, Collin S (1999) Contribution of 3-methylthiopropionaldehyde to the worty flavor of alcohol-free beers. J Agric Food Chem 47:2374–2378. doi:10.1021/jf9811323

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perpete P, Collin S (2000) Influence of beer ethanol content on the wort flavour perception. Food Chem 71:379–385. doi:10.1016/S0308-8146(00)00179-5

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Petropoulos S, Grbin P, Jiranek V (2010) Influence of heat shock-treated cells on the production of glycerol and other metabolites in alcoholic fermentation. Int J Wine Res 2:115–122. doi:10.2147/ijwr.s12988

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piddocke M, Kreisz S, Heldt-Hansen H, Nielsen K, Olsson L (2009) Physiological characterization of brewer’s yeast in high-gravity beer fermentations with glucose or maltose syrups as adjuncts. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 84:453–464. doi:10.1007/s00253-009-1930-y

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pigeau GM, Inglis DL (2005) Upregulation of ALD3 and GPD1 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae during Icewine fermentation. J Appl Microbiol 99:112–125

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Radler F, Schütz H (1982) Glycerol production of various strains of Saccharomyces. Am J Enol Vitic 33:36–40

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Remize F, Roustan JL, Sablayrolles JM, Barre P, Dequin S (1999) Glycerol overproduction by engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae wine yeast strains leads to substantial changes in by-product formation and to a stimulation of fermentation rate in stationary phase. Appl Environ Microbiol 65:143–149

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Remize F, Sablayrolles JM, Dequin S (2000) Re-assessment of the influence of yeast strain and environmental factors on glycerol production in wine. J Appl Microbiol 88:371–378. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.2000.00964.x

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Remize F, Barnavon L, Dequin S (2001) Glycerol export and glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, but not glycerol phosphatase, are rate limiting for glycerol production in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Metab Eng 3:301–312

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Remize F, Cambon B, Barnavon L, Dequin S (2003) Glycerol formation during wine fermentation is mainly linked to Gpd1p and is only partially controlled by the HOG pathway. Yeast 20:1243–1253. doi:10.1002/yea.1041

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scanes KT, Hohmann S, Prior BA (1998) Glycerol production by the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and its relevance to wine: a review. S Afr J Enol Vitic 19:17–24

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sohrabvandi S, Mousavi SM, Razavi SH, Mortazavian AM, Rezaei K (2010) Alcohol-free beer: methods of production, sensorial defects, and healthful effects. Food Rev Int 26:335–352. doi:10.1080/87559129.2010.496022

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Varela C et al. (2012) Evaluation of gene modification strategies for the development of low-alcohol-wine yeasts. Appl Environ Microbiol 78:6068–6077. doi:10.1128/AEM.01279-12

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Verbelen PJ, Dekoninck TML, Saerens SMG, Mulders SE, Thevelein JM, Delvaux FR (2009) Impact of pitching rate on yeast fermentation performance and beer flavour. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 82:155–167. doi:10.1007/s00253-008-1779-5

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang Z, Zhuge J, Fang H, Prior BA (2001) Glycerol production by microbial fermentation: a review. Biotechnol Adv 19:201–223

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yalçιn SK, Özbaş ZY (2006) Production of glycerol by two endogenic wine yeast strains at different inoculum size. Food Technol Biotechnol 44:525

    Google Scholar 

  • Yalçιn SK, Özbaş ZY (2008) Effects of PH and temperature on growth and glycerol production kinetics of two indigenous wine strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae from Turkey. Braz J Microbiol 39:325–332

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yu Z, Zhao H, Li H, Zhang Q, Lei H, Zhao M (2012) Selection of Saccharomyces pastorianus variants with improved fermentation performance under very high gravity wort conditions. Biotechnol Lett 34:365–370. doi:10.1007/s10529-011-0780-8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The first author is funded by China Scholarship Council.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Lehrstuhl für Brau- und Getränketechnologie, Technische Universität München, Weihenstephan, Weihenstephaner Steig 20, 85354, Freising, Germany

    Xiangdong Zhao, Susanne Procopio & Thomas Becker

Authors
  1. Xiangdong Zhao
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Susanne Procopio
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Thomas Becker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Susanne Procopio.

Additional information

Highlights: • Glycerol and major beverage flavor interactions

• Impacts of glycerol optimizations on the genes transcription level

• Changes of aroma compounds formation during glycerol yield optimizations.

• Glycerol yield improvements in beverage fermentations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Zhao, X., Procopio, S. & Becker, T. Flavor impacts of glycerol in the processing of yeast fermented beverages: a review. J Food Sci Technol 52, 7588–7598 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-015-1977-y

Download citation

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-015-1977-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation