Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Time-Series Analysis of Daily Changes in Mindfulness, Repetitive Thinking, and Depressive Symptoms During Mindfulness-Based Treatment

  • ORIGINAL PAPER
  • Published:
Mindfulness Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Mindfulness and ruminative thinking have been shown to mediate the effects of mindfulness-based treatments on depressive symptoms. Yet, the dynamic interplay between these variables in daily life during mindfulness-based treatment has received little attention. The present study focuses on the sequence of daily changes taking place within individuals during a mindfulness-based treatment. Using a replicated single-subject time-series design, we examined the within-person temporal associations between day-to-day changes in mindfulness, repetitive thinking, and depressive symptoms. Study participants were six women with depressive symptoms who filled out diary questionnaires during a mindfulness-based treatment. A separate vector autoregressive (VAR) model was estimated for each participant. Changes in mindfulness and repetitive thinking preceded changes in depressive symptoms in a few of the six participants. We did not find evidence for reverse causality: changes in depressive symptoms did not predict later changes in mindfulness or repetitive thinking in any of the participants. These results are in accordance with the assumed causal chain of change underlying mindfulness-based treatments. Furthermore, all individuals showed moderate to strong concurrent (within-day) associations between the variables. Possible explanations for this finding include that change processes occur within the day or that the daily self-reports of mindfulness, repetitive thinking, and depressive symptoms overlap and reflect a common underlying state of mind.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • aan het Rot, M., Hogenelst, K., & Schoevers, R. A. (2012). Mood disorders in everyday life: a systematic review of experience sampling and ecological momentary assessment studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 32(6), 510–523. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2012.05.007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allport, G. W. (1937). Personality: a psychological interpretation. Holt: Oxford England.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders [null] (4th ed.). Washington, DC.

  • Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Hopkins, J., Krietemeyer, J., & Toney, L. (2006). Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment, 13(1), 27–45. doi:10.1177/1073191105283504.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Lykins, E., Button, D., Krietemeyer, J., Sauer, S., & Williams, J. M. (2008). Construct validity of the five facet mindfulness questionnaire in meditating and nonmeditating samples. Assessment, 15(3), 329–342. doi:10.1177/1073191107313003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barlow, D. H., & Nock, M. K. (2009). Why can’t we be more idiographic in our research? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4(1), 19–21. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01088.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., & Devins, G. (2004). Mindfulness: a proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology-Science and Practice, 11(3), 230–241. doi:10.1093/clipsy.bph077.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brandt, P. T., & Williams, J. T. (2007). Multiple time series models. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, D. M., & Teasdale, J. D. (1982). Diurnal variation in clinical depression and accessibility of memories of positive and negative experiences. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91(2), 87–95. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.91.2.87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (2003). A power primer. In A. E. Kazdin (Ed.), Methodological issues & strategies in clinical research (3rd ed., pp. 427–436). Washington: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dugas, M. J., Francis, K., & Bouchard, S. (2009). Cognitive behavioural therapy and applied relaxation for generalized anxiety disorder: a time series analysis of change in worry and somatic anxiety. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 38(1), 29–41. doi:10.1080/16506070802473221.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehring, T., Zetsche, U., Weidacker, K., Wahl, K., Schönfeld, S., & Ehlers, A. (2011). The perseverative thinking questionnaire (PTQ): validation of a content-independent measure of repetitive negative thinking. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 42(2), 225–232. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2010.12.003.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Granger, C. W. J. (1969). Investigating causal relations by econometric models and cross-spectral methods. Econometrica, 37(3), 424–438. doi:10.2307/1912791.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamaker, E. L. (2012). Why researchers should think ‘within-person’: a paradigmatic rationale. In M. R. Mehl & T. S. Conner (Eds.), Handbook of research methods for studying daily life (pp. 43–61). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamaker, E. L., Dolan, C. V., & Molenaar, P. C. M. (2005). Statistical modeling of the individual: rationale and application of multivariate stationary time series analysis. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 40(2), 207–233. doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr4002_3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jain, S., Shapiro, S. L., Swanick, S., Roesch, S. C., Mills, P. J., Bell, I., & Schwartz, G. E. R. (2007). A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation training: effects on distress, positive states of mind, rumination, and distraction. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 33(1), 11–21. doi:10.1207/s15324796abm3301_2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness. New York: Delacourt.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go, there you are: mindfulness meditation in everyday life. New York: Hyperion.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E. (2007). Mediators and mechanisms of change in psychotherapy research. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 3, 1–27. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091432.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khoury, B., Lecomte, T., Fortin, G., Masse, M., Therien, P., Bouchard, V., & Hofmann, S. G. (2013). Mindfulness-based therapy: a comprehensive meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(6), 763–771. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2013.05.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. W. (2001). The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 16(9), 606–613. doi:10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. W. (2003). The patient health questionnaire-2: validity of a two-item depression screener. Medical Care, 41(11), 1284–1292. doi:10.1097/01.MLR.0000093487.78664.3C.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuyken, W., Watkins, E., Holden, E., White, K., Taylor, R. S., Byford, S., & Dalgleish, T. (2010). How does mindfulness-based cognitive therapy work? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48(11), 1105–1112. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.08.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laurenceau, J. P., Hayes, A. M., & Feldman, G. C. (2007). Some methodological and statistical issues in the study of change processes in psychotherapy. Clinical Psychology Review, 27(6), 682–695. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.01.007.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lütkepohl, H. (2007). New introduction to multiple time series analysis (p. 211). Berlin: Springer Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • May, C. J., Weyker, J. R., Spengel, S. K., Finkler, L. J., & Hendrix, S. E. (2014). Tracking longitudinal changes in affect and mindfulness caused by concentration and loving-kindness meditation with hierarchical linear modeling. Mindfulness, 5(3), 249–258. doi:10.1007/s12671-012-0172-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Molenaar, P. C. M. (2004). A manifesto on psychology as idiographic science: bringing the person back into scientific psychology, this time forever. Measurement: Interdisciplinary Research and Perspectives, 2(4), 201–218. doi:10.1207/s15366359mea0204_1.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morren, M., van Dulmen, S., Ouwerkerk, J., & Bensing, J. (2009). Compliance with momentary pain measurement using electronic diaries: a systematic review. European Journal of Pain, 13(4), 354–365. doi:10.1016/j.ejpain.2008.05.010.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nyklíček, I., & Kuijpers, K. F. (2008). Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction intervention on psychological well-being and quality of life: is increased mindfulness indeed the mechanism? Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 35(3), 331–340. doi:10.1007/s12160-008-9030-2.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peeters, F., Berkhof, J., Delespaul, P., Rottenberg, J., & Nicolson, N. A. (2006). Diurnal mood variation in major depressive disorder. Emotion, 6(3), 383–391. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.6.3.383.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosmalen, J. G. M., Wenting, A. M. G., Roest, A. M., de Jonge, P., & Bos, E. H. (2012). Revealing causal heterogeneity using time series analysis of ambulatory assessments: application to the association between depression and physical activity after myocardial infarction. Psychosomatic Medicine, 74(4), 377–386. doi:10.1097/PSY.0b013e3182545d47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schroevers, M. J., & Brandsma, R. (2010). Is learning mindfulness associated with improved affect after mindfulness-based cognitive therapy? British Journal of Psychology, 101(1), 95–107. doi:10.1348/000712609X424195.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M. G., & Teasdale, J. D. (2002). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shahar, B., Britton, W. B., Sbarra, D. A., Figueredo, A. J., & Bootzin, R. R. (2010). Mechanisms of change in mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression: preliminary evidence from a randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 3(4), 402–418. doi:10.1521/ijct.2010.3.4.402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sims, C. (1980). Macroeconomics and reality. Econometrica, 48(1), 1–48. doi:10.2307/1912017.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singer, J. D., & Willett, J. B. (2003). Applied longitudinal data analysis: modeling change and event occurrence. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Spitzer, R. L., Williams, J. B. W. & Kroenke, K. (2013). Patient health questionnaire (PHQ) screeners. Retrieved 11/18, 2013, Retrieved from http://www.phqscreeners.com/.

  • Stanton, A. L., Luecken, L. J., MacKinnon, D. P., & Thompson, E. H. (2012). Mechanisms in psychosocial interventions for adults living with cancer: opportunity for integration of theory, research, and practice. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. doi:10.1037/a0028833.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thiele, C., Laireiter, A., & Baumann, U. (2002). Diaries in clinical psychology and psychotherapy: a selective review. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 9(1), 1–37. doi:10.1002/cpp.302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Aalderen, J. R., Donders, A. R. T., Giommi, F., Spinhoven, P., Barendregt, H. P., & Speckens, A. E. M. (2012). The efficacy of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy in recurrent depressed patients with and without a current depressive episode: a randomized controlled trial. Psychological Medicine, 42(5), 989–1001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Health Psychology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, P.O. Box 196, 9700 AD, Groningen, The Netherlands

    Evelien Snippe, Robbert Sanderman, Joke Fleer & Maya J. Schroevers

  2. Interdisciplinary Center Psychopathology and Emotion Regulation, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands

    Elisabeth H. Bos

  3. Center for Integrative Psychiatry, Lentis, Groningen, The Netherlands

    Karen M. van der Ploeg

Authors
  1. Evelien Snippe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Elisabeth H. Bos
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Karen M. van der Ploeg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Robbert Sanderman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Joke Fleer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Maya J. Schroevers
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Maya J. Schroevers.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Snippe, E., Bos, E.H., van der Ploeg, K.M. et al. Time-Series Analysis of Daily Changes in Mindfulness, Repetitive Thinking, and Depressive Symptoms During Mindfulness-Based Treatment. Mindfulness 6, 1053–1062 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0354-7

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0354-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation