Abstract
High-energy emulsification is traditionally used to produce food-grade emulsions. However, energy input, design of the device and the type of surfactant should be carefully evaluated to achieve the desired emulsion properties. The low-energy processes, as spontaneous emulsification and phase inversion temperature, are alternative methods for producing systems with high stability and smaller particle sizes. Nevertheless, the surfactants and cosurfactants frequently used to produce emulsions from the low-energy process are not food grade or require a higher concentration than is allowed in food products. In this review, the characteristics of emulsions produced from low- and high-energy emulsifications, the mechanisms of droplet formation and their stability are reviewed with a particular focus on recent studies addressing the effects of process parameters on the properties of food emulsions. Knowing the principles and limitations of high- and low-energy processes, adequate process conditions and future trends are suggested depending on the system composition and the desired properties of the final product.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Amar I, Aserin A, Garti N (2004) Microstructure transitions derived from solubilisation of lutein and lutein esters in food microemulsions. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 33:143–150
Anton N, Vandamme TF (2009) The universality of low-energy nano-emulsification. Int J Pharm 377:142–147
Anton N, Benoit JP, Saulnier P (2008) Design and production of nanoparticles formulated from nano-emulsion templates—A review. J Control Release 128:185–199
Bera A, Ojha K, Mandal A, Kumar T (2011) Interfacial tension and phase behavior of surfactant-brine-oil system. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 383:114–119
Biasutti M, Venir E, Marchesini G, Innocente N (2010) Rheological properties of model dairy emulsions as affected by high pressure homogenization. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 11:580–586
Binks BP (1998) Modern aspects of emulsion science. The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge
Bouchemal K, Briançon S, Perrier E, Fessi H (2004) Nano-emulsion formulation using spontaneous emulsification: solvent, oil and surfactant optimization. Int J Pharm 280:241–251
Cambiella A, Benito JM, Pazos C, Coca J, Ratoi M, Spikes HA (2006) The effect of emulsifier concentration on the lubricating properties of oil-in-water emulsions. Tribol Lett 22:53–65
Campo L, Yaghmur A, Garti N, Leser ME, Folmer B, Glatter O (2004) Five-component food-grade microemulsions: structural characterization by SANS. J Colloid Interface Sci 274:251–267
Casoli P, Vacca A, Berta GL (2010) A numerical procedure for predicting the performance of high pressure homogenizing valves. Simul Model Pract Theory 18:125–138
Che LM, Wang LJ, Li D, Bhandari B, Özkan N, Chen XD, Mao ZH (2009) Starch pastes thinning during high-pressure homogenization. Carbohydr Polym 75:32–38
Cho YH, Kim S, Bae EK, Mok CK, Park J (2008) Formulation of a cosurfactant-free O/W microemulsion using nonionic surfactant mixtures. J Food Sci 73:115–121
Cortés-Muñoz M, Chevalier-Lucia D, Dumay E (2009) Characteristics of submicron emulsions prepared by ultra-high pressure homogenisation: effect of chilled or frozen storage. Food Hydrocolloids 23:640–654
Dave H, Gao F, Schultz M, Co CC (2007) Phase behavior and SANS investigations of edible sugar-limonene microemulsions. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 296:45–50
Davies E, Dickinson E, Bee R (2000) Shear stability of sodium caseinate emulsions containing monoglyceride and triglyceride crystals. Food Hydrocolloids 14:145–153
Desrumaux A, Marcand J (2002) Formation of sunflower oil emulsions stabilized by whey proteins with high-pressure homogenization (up to 350 MPa): effect of pressure on emulsion characteristics. Int J Food Sci Technol 37:263–269
Dickinson E (2003) Hydrocolloids at interfaces and the influence on the properties of dispersed systems. Food Hydrocolloids 17:25–39
Dickinson E (2009) Hydrocolloids as emulsifiers and emulsion stabilizers. Food Hydrocolloids 23:1473–1482
Dumay EM, Kalichevsky MT, Cheftel JC (1994) High-pressure unfolding and aggregation of β-lactoglobulin and the baroprotective effects of sucrose. J Agric Food Chem 42:1861–1868
Evans DF, Wennerström H (1999) The colloidal domain – where physics, chemistry, biology and technology meet. VCH Publishers, New York
Fan Y, Li X, Zhou Y, Fan C, Wang X, Huang Y, Liu Y (2011) Improved intestinal delivery of salmon calcitonin by water-in-oil microemulsions. Int J Pharm 416:323–330
Fanun M (2009) Properties of microemulsions based on mixed nonionic surfactants and mixed oils. J Mol Liq 150:25–32
Fanun M (2010) Microemulsions with mixed nonionic surfactants and flavor oil. J Surfactants Deterg 13:321–328
Fanun M (2010) Properties of microemulsions with mixed non-ionic surfactants and citrus oil. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 382:226–231
Fanun M (2010) Formulation and characterization of microemulsions based on mixed nonionic surfactants and peppermint oil. J Colloid Interface Sci 343:496–503
Fasolin LH, Santana RC, Cunha RL (2012) Microemulsions and liquid crystalline formulated with triacylglycerols: effect of ethanol and oil unsaturation. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 415:31–40
Feng JL, Wang ZW, Zhang J, Wang ZN, Liu F (2009) Study on food-grade vitamin E microemulsions based on nonionic emulsifiers. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 339:1–6
Fernandez P, André V, Rieger J, Kühnle A (2004) Nano-emulsion formation by emulsion phase inversion. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 251:53–58
Flanagan J, Singh H (2006) Microemulsions: a potential delivery system for bioactives in food. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 46:221–237
Flanagan J, Kortegaard K, Pinder DN, Rades T, Singh H (2006) Solubilisation of soybean oil in microemulsions using various surfactants. Food Hydrocolloids 20:253–260
Floury J, Desrumaux A, Lardières J (2000) Effect of high-pressure homogenization on droplet size distributions and rheological properties of model oil-in-water emulsions. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 1:127–134
Floury J, Desrumaux A, Axelos MAV, Legrand J (2003) Effect of high pressure homogenisation on methylcellulose as food emulsifier. J Food Eng 58:227–238
Floury J, Bellettre J, Legrand J, Desrumaux A (2004) Analysis of a new type of high pressure homogeniser. A study of the flow pattern. Chem Eng Sci 59:843–853
Forgiarini A, Esquena J, González C, Solans C (2001) Formation of nano-emulsions by low-energy emulsification methods at constant temperature. Langmuir 17:2076–2083
Fradette L, Brocart B, Tanguy PA (2007) Comparison of mixing technologies for the production of concentrated emulsions. Chem Eng Res Des 85:1553–1560
Freudig B, Tesch S, Schubert H (2003) Production of emulsions in high-pressure homogenizers—Part II: influence of cavitation on droplet breakup. Eng Life Sci 3:266–270
Galazka VB, Dickinson E, Ledward DA (1996) Effect of high pressure on the emulsifying behaviour of β-lactoglobulin. Food Hydrocolloids 10:213–219
Garti N (1999) What can nature offer from an emulsifier point of view: trends and progress? Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 152:125–146
Garti N (2001) Food emulsifiers and stabilizers. In: Eskin MNA, Robinson DS (eds) Food shelf life stability, chemical, biochemical and microbiological changes. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 211–263
Gu YS, Decker EA, McClements DJ (2004) Influence of pH and ι-carrageenan concentration on physicochemical properties and stability of β-lactoglobulin-stabilized oil-in-water emulsions. J Agric Food Chem 52:3626–3632
Gurfinkel J, Aserin A, Garti N (2011) Interactions of surfactants in nonionic/anionic reverse hexagonal mesophases and solubilization of α-chymotrypsinogen A. Colloid Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 392:322–328
Hakansson A, Trägardh C, Bergenstahl B (2009) Studying the effects of adsorption, recoalescence and fragmentation in a high pressure homogenizer using a dynamic simulation model. Food Hydrocolloids 23:1177–1183
Hakansson A, Trägardh C, Bergenstahl B (2009) Dynamic simulation of emulsion formation in a high pressure homogenizer. Chem Eng Sci 64:2915–2925
Hickey S, Hagan SA, Kudryashov E, Buckin V (2010) Analysis of phase diagram and microstructural transitions in an ethyl oleate/water/Tween 80/Span 20 microemulsion system using high-resolution ultrasonic spectroscopy. Int J Pharm 388:213–222
Innocente N, Biasutti M, Venir E, Spaziani M, Marchesini G (2009) Effect of high-pressure homogenization on droplet size distribution and rheological properties of ice cream mixes. J Dairy Sci 92:1864–1875
Jafari SM, He Y, Bhandari B (2007) Effectiveness of encapsulating biopolymers to produce sub-micron emulsions by high energy emulsification techniques. Food Res Int 40:862–873
Jafari SM, Assadpoor E, He Y, Bhandari B (2008) Re-coalescence of emulsion droplets during high-energy emulsification. Food Hydrocolloids 22:1191–1202
Koroleva MY, Yurtov EV (2012) Nanoemulsions: the properties, methods of preparation and promising applications. Russian Chem Rev 81:21–43
Kralova I, Sjöblom J (2009) Surfactants used in food industry: a review. J Dispers Sci Technol 30:1363–1383
Krog NJ, Sparso FV (2004) Food emulsifiers: their chemical and physical properties. Food Emulsions. Friberg SE, Larsson K., and Sjoblom J., Eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, In
Kuhn KR, Cunha RL (2012) Flaxseed oil–whey protein isolate emulsions: effect of high pressure homogenization. J Food Eng 111:449–457
Lal SND, O′Connor CJ, Eyres L (2006) Application of emulsifier/stabilizers in dairy products of high rheology. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 16:123–126
Lawrence MJ, Rees GD (2000) Microemulsion-based media as novel drug delivery systems. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 45:89–121
Lee MH, Yu MW, Ka OL, Lin CC (2009) Enhancement of the encapsulation and transmembrane permeation of isoflavone-containing red clover extracts in phospholipid-based microemulsions using different extraction processes. J Agric Food Chem 57:9489–9495
Leser ME, Sagalowicz L, Michel M, Watzke HJ (2006) Self-assembly of polar food lipids. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 123–126:125–136
Lin CC, Lin HY, Chen HC, Yu MW, Lee MH (2009) Stability and characterisation of phospholipid-based curcumin-encapsulated microemulsions. Food Chem 116:923–928
Liu F, Wang ZW (2010) Formulation of α-linolenic acid microemulsion free of co-surfactant. Chin Chem Lett 21:105–108
Liu CH, Chang FY, Hung DK (2011) Terpene microemulsions for transdermal curcumin delivery: effects of terpenes and cosurfactants. Colloid Surf B-Biointerfaces 82:63–70
Lizarraga MS, Pan LG, Añon MC, Santiago LG (2008) Stability of concentrated emulsions measured by optical and rheological methods. Effect of processing conditions—I Whey protein concentrate. Food Hydrocolloids 22:868–878
Marie P, Perrier-Cornet JM, Gervais P (2002) Influence of major parameters in emulsification mechanisms using a high-pressure jet. J Food Eng 53:43–51
Mason TG, Wilking JN, Meleson K, Chang CB, Graves SM (2006) Nanoemulsions: formation, structure, and physical properties. J Phys: Condens Matter 18:R635–R666
McClements DJ (2004) Protein-stabilized emulsions. Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci 9:305–313
McClements DJ (2005) Food emulsions: principles, practice, and techniques. CRC Press, Washington, DC
McClements DJ (2012) Nanoemulsions versus microemulsions: terminology, differences, and similarities. Soft Matter 8:1719–1729
McClements DJ, Rao J (2011) Food-grade Nanoemulsions: formulation, fabrication, properties, performance, biological fate, and potential toxicity. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 51:285–330
Mohan S, Narsimhan G (1997) Coalescence of protein-stabilized emulsions in a high-pressure homogenizer. J Colloid Interface Sci 192:1–15
Muschiolik G (2007) Multiple emulsions for food use. Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci 12:213–220
Nguyen TTL, Edelen A, Neighbors B, Sabatini DA (2010) Biocompatible lecithin-based microemulsions with rhamnolipid and sophorolipid biosurfactants: formulation and potential applications. J Colloid Interface Sci 348:498–504
Pal R (2000) Shear viscosity behavior of emulsions of two immiscible liquids. J Colloid Interface Sci 225:359–366
Papadimitriou V, Sotiroudis TG, Xenakis A (2007) Olive oil microemulsions: enzymatic activities and structural characteristics. Langmuir 23:2071–2077
Papadimitriou V, Pispas S, Syriou S, Pournara A, Zoumpanioti M, Sotiroudis TG, Xenakis A (2008) Biocompatible microemulsions based on limonene: formulation, structure, and applications. Langmuir 24:3380–3386
Patel N, Schmid U, Lawrence MJ (2006) Phospholipid-based microemulsions suitable for use in foods. J Agric Food Chem 54:7817–7824
Pawlik A, Cox PW, Norton IT (2010) Food grade duplex emulsions designed and stabilised with different osmotic pressures. J Colloid Interface Sci 352:59–67
Perrechil FA, Cunha RL (2010) Oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by sodium caseinate: influence of pH, high-pressure homogenization and locust bean gum addition. J Food Eng 97:441–448
Perrier-Cornet JM, Marie P, Gervais P (2005) Comparison of emulsification efficiency of protein-stabilized oil-in-water emulsions using jet, high pressure and colloid mill homogenization. J Food Eng 66:211–217
Pey CM, Maestro A, Solé I, González C, Solans C, Gutiérrez JM (2006) Optimization of nano-emulsions prepared by low-energy emulsification methods at constant temperature using a factorial design study. Colloid Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 288:144–150
Phipps LW (1975) The fragmentation of oil drops in emulsions by a high-pressure homogenizer. J Phys D-Appl Phys 8:448–462
Polizelli MA, Telis VRN, Amaral LQ, Feitosa E (2006) Formation and characterization of soy bean oil/surfactant/water microemulsions. Colloid Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 281:230–236
Polizelli MA, Santos AL, Feitosa E (2008) The effect of sodium chloride on the formation of W/O microemulsions in soy bean oil/surfactant/water systems and the solubilization of small hydrophilic molecules. Colloid Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 315:130–135
Qian C, McClements DJ (2011) Formation of nanoemulsions stabilized by model food-grade emulsifiers using high-pressure homogenization: factors affecting particle size. Food Hydrocolloids 25:1000–1008
Rampon V, Riaublanc A, Anton M, Genot C, McClements DJ (2003) Evidence that homogenization of BSA-stabilized hexadecane-in-water emulsions induces structure modification of the nonadsorbed protein. J Agric Food Chem 51:5900–5905
Rao J, McClements DJ (2011) Food-grade microemulsions, nanoemulsions and emulsions: fabrication from sucrose monopalmitate and lemon oil. Food Hydrocolloids 25:1413–1423
Rao J, McClements DJ (2011) Formation of flavor oil microemulsions, nanoemulsions and emulsions: influence of composition and preparation method. J Agric Food Chem 59:5026–5035
Rodríguez MS, Albertengo LA, Agulló A (2002) Emulsification capacity of chitosan. Carbohydr Polym 48:271–276
Sagalowicz L, Leser ME (2010) Delivery systems for liquid food products. Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci 15:61–72
San Martin-González MF, Roach A, Harte F (2009) Rheological properties of corn oil emulsions stabilized by commercial micellar casein and high pressure homogenization. LWT-Food Sci Technol 42:307–311
Sandra S, Dalgleish DG (2005) Effects of ultra-high-pressure homogenization and heating on structural properties of casein micelles in reconstituted skim milk powder. Int Dairy J 15:1095–1104
Santana RC, Perrechil FA, Sato ACK, Cunha RL (2011) Emulsifying properties of collagen fibers: effect of pH, protein concentration and homogenization pressure. Food Hydrocolloids 25:604–612
Santana RC, Fasolin LH, Cunha RL (2012) Effects of a cosurfactant on the shear-dependent structures of systems composed of biocompatible ingredients. Colloid Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 398:54–63
Santana RC, Sato ACK, Cunha RL (2012) Emulsions stabilized by heat-treated collagen fibers. Food Hydrocolloids 26:73–81
Schmidt KA, Smith DE (1989) Effects of varying homogenization pressure on the physical properties of vanilla ice cream. J Dairy Sci 72:378–384
Schubert H, Ax K, Behrend O (2003) Product engineering of dispersed systems. Trends Food Sci Technol 14:9–16
Schultz S, Wagner G, Urban K, Ulrich J (2004) High-pressure homogenization as a process for emulsion formation. Chem Eng Technol 27:361–368
Schulz MB, Daniels R (2000) Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) as emulsifier for submicron emulsions: influence of molecular weight and substitution type on the droplet size after high-pressure homogenization. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 49:231–236
Seekkuarachchi IN, Tanaka K, Kumazawa H (2006) Formation and characterization of submicrometer oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions, using high-energy emulsification. Ind Eng Chem Res 45:372–390
Shafiq S, Shakeel F, Talegaonkar S, Ahmad FJ, Khar RK, Ali M (2007) Development and bioavailability assessment of ramipril nanoemulsion formulation. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 66:227–243
Solè I, Maestro A, González C, Solans C, Gutiérrez JM (2006) Optimization of nano-emulsion preparation by low-energy methods in an ionic surfactant system. Langmuir 22:8326–8332
Solè I, Pey CM, Maestro A, González C, Porras M, Solans C, Gutiérrez JM (2010) Nano-emulsions prepared by the phase inversion composition method: preparation variables and scale up. J Colloid Interface Sci 344:417–423
Sosa-Herrera MG, Berli CLA, Martínez-Padilla LP (2008) Physicochemical and rheological properties of oil-in-water emulsions prepared with sodium caseinate/gellan gum mixtures. Food Hydrocolloids 22:934–942
Spernath A, Yaghmur A, Aserin A, Hoffman RE, Garti N (2002) Food-grade microemulsions based on nonionic emulsifiers: media to enhance lycopene solubilization. J Agric Food Chem 50:6917–6922
Stang M, Schuchmann H, Schubert H (2001) Emulsification in high-pressure homogenizers. Eng Life Sci 1:151–157
Steiner H, Teppner R, Brenn G, Vankova N, Tcholakova S, Denkov N (2006) Numerical simulation and experimental study of emulsification in a narrow-gap homogenizer. Chem Eng Sci 61:5841–5855
Surh J, Decker EA, McClements DJ (2006) Influence of pH and pectin type on properties and stability of sodium-caseinate stabilized oil-in-water emulsions. Food Hydrocolloids 20:607–618
Tadros TF (2008) Applied surfactants: principles and applications. Wiley, VCH, Weinheim
Tadros T, Izquierdo P, Esquena J, Solans C (2004) Formation and stability of nano-emulsions. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 108–109:303–318
Tavano L, Alfano P, Muzzalupo R, de Cindio B (2011) Niosomes vs microemulsions: new carriers for topical delivery of Capsaicin. Colloid Surf B-Biointerfaces 87:333–339
Tcholakova S, Denkov ND, Sidzhakova D, Ivanov IB, Campbell B (2003) Interrelation between drop size and protein adsorption at various emulsification conditions. Langmuir 19:5640–5649
Tolosa LI, Forgiarini A, Moreno P, Salager JL (2006) Combined effects of formulation and stirring on emulsion drop size in the vicinity of three-phase behavior of surfactant-oil water systems. Ind Eng Chem Res 45:3810–3814
van Aken GA, van Vliet T (2002) Flow-induced coalescence in protein-stabilized highly concentrated emulsions: role of shear-resisting connections between the droplets. Langmuir 18:7364–7370
Walstra P, Smulders PEA (1998) Emulsion formation. In: Walstra P, Smulders PEA (eds) Modern aspects of emulsion science. The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, pp 56–98
Windhab EJ, Dressler M, Feigl K, Fischer P, Megias-Alguacil D (2005) Emulsion processing—from single-drop deformation to design of complex processes and products. Chem Eng Sci 60:2101–2113
Yaghmur A, Aserin A, Garti N (2002) Phase behavior of microemulsions based on food-grade nonionic surfactants: effect of polyols and short-chain alcohols. Colloid Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 209:71–81
Yuan JS, Ansari M, Samaan M, Acosta EJ (2008) Linker-based lecithin microemulsions for transdermal delivery of lidocaine. Int J Pharm 349:130–143
Zhang H, Shen Y, Weng P, Zhao G, Feng F, Zheng X (2009) Antimicrobial activity of a food-grade fully dilutable microemulsion against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Int J Food Microbiol 135:211–215
Zhang H, Cui Y, Zhu S, Feng F, Zheng X (2010) Characterization and antimicrobial activity of a pharmaceutical microemulsion. Int J Pharm 395:154–160
Zhang H, Li D, Zhu S, Feng F, Zheng X (2011) Antibacterial activities of a food-grade dilution-stable microemulsion. J Food Saf 31:232–237
Zheng M, Wang Z, Liu F, Mi Q, Wu J (2011) Study on the microstructure and rheological property of fish oil lyotropic liquid crystal. Colloid Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 385:47–54
Zhong F, Yu M, Luo C, Shoemaker CF, Li Y, Xia S, Ma J (2009) Formation and characterisation of mint oil/S and CS/water microemulsions. Food Chem 115:539–544
Ziani K, Chang Y, McLandsborough L, McClements DJ (2011) Influence of surfactant charge on antimicrobial efficacy of surfactant-stabilized thyme oil nanoemulsions. J Agric Food Chem 59:6247–6625
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Santana, R.C., Perrechil, F.A. & Cunha, R.L. High- and Low-Energy Emulsifications for Food Applications: A Focus on Process Parameters. Food Eng Rev 5, 107–122 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12393-013-9065-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12393-013-9065-4