Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Sexual Orientation and Gender Differences in Markers of Inflammation and Immune Functioning

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Annals of Behavioral Medicine

Abstract

Background

Sexual minorities have documented elevated risk factors that can lead to inflammation and poor immune functioning.

Purpose

This study aims to investigate disparities in C-reactive protein (CRP) and Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) by gender and sexual orientation.

Methods

We used the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to examine disparities in CRP (N = 11,462) and EBV (N = 11,812).

Results

Among heterosexuals, women had higher levels of CRP and EBV than men. However, sexual minority men had higher levels of CRP and EBV than heterosexual men and sexual minority women. Lesbians had lower levels of CRP than heterosexual women.

Conclusions

Gender differences in CRP and EBV found between men and women who identify as 100 % heterosexual were reversed among sexual minorities and not explained by known risk factors (e.g., victimization, alcohol and tobacco use, and body mass index). More nuanced approaches to addressing gender differences in sexual orientation health disparities that include measures of gender nonconformity and minority stress are needed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Kosciw JG, Greytak EA, Bartkiewicz MJ, Boesen MJ, Palmer NA. The 2011 National School Climate Survey: The experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender Youth in Our Nation’s Schools. 2012. Available at http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/recordDetail?accno=ED535177. Accessed April 10, 2013.

  2. Herek GM. Hate crimes and stigma-related experiences among sexual minority adults in the United States. J Interpers Violence. 2009; 24: 54-74.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Huebner DM, Rebchook GM, Kegeles SM. Experiences of harassment, discrimination, and physical violence among young gay and bisexual men. Am J Public Health. 2004; 94: 1200-1203.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Hatzenbuehler ML. The social environment and suicide attempts in lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Pediatrics. 2011; 127: 896-903.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Hatzenbuehler ML, McLaughlin KA, Keyes KM, Hasin DS. The impact of institutional discrimination on psychiatric disorders in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: A prospective study. Am J Public Health. 2010; 100: 452-459.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Meyer IH. Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychol Bull. 2003; 129: 674-697.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Meyer IH. Minority stress and mental health in gay men. J Health Soc Behav. 1995; 36: 38-56.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Fredriksen-Goldsen KI, Kim H-J, Barkan SE, Muraco A, Hoy-Ellis CP. Health disparities among lesbian, gay, and bisexual older adults: Results from a population-based study. Am J Public Health. 2013; 103: 1802-1809.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Conron K, Mimiaga M, Landers S. A population-based study of sexual orientation identity and gender differences in adult health. Am J Public Health. 2010; 100: 1953-1960.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Cochran SD, Mays VM. Physical health complaints among lesbians, gay men, and bisexual and homosexually experienced heterosexual individuals: Results from the California Quality of Life Survey. Am J Public Health. 2007; 97: 2048-2055.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Everett B, Mollborn S. Differences in hypertension by sexual orientation among U.S. young adults. J Commun Health. 2013; 38: 588-596.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Hatzenbuehler ML, McLaughlin KA, Slopen N. Sexual orientation disparities in cardiovascular biomarkers among young adults. Am J Prev Med. 2013; 44: 612-621.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Segerstrom SC, Miller GE. Psychological stress and the human immune system: A meta-analytic study of 30 years of inquiry. Psychol Bull. 2004; 130: 601-630.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. McEwen BS. Stress, adaptation, and disease: Allostasis and allostatic load. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1998; 840: 33-44.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Shames RS. Gender differences in the development and function of the immune system. J Adolescent Health. 2002; 30: 59-70.

    Google Scholar 

  16. McClelland EE, Smith JM. Gender specific differences in the immune response to infection. Arch Immunol Ther Ex. 2011; 59: 203-213.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Cartier A, Côté M, Lemieux I, et al. Sex differences in inflammatory markers: what is the contribution of visceral adiposity? Am J Clin Nutr. 2009; 89: 1307-1314.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Casimir GJA, Duchateau J. Gender differences in inflammatory processes could explain poorer prognosis for males. J Clin Microbiol. 2011; 49(1): 478-479.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Cannon JG, St. Pierre BA. Gender differences in host defense mechanisms. J Psychiat Res. 1997; 31(1): 99-113.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Bailey JM, Zucker KJ. Childhood sex-typed behavior and sexual orientation: A conceptual analysis and quantitative review. Dev Psychol. 1995; 31: 43-55.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Zucker KJ. Reflections on the relation between sex-typed behavior in childhood and sexual orientation in adulthood. J Gay Lesbian Mental Health. 2008; 12(1–2): 29-59.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Lippa RA. Sexual orientation and personality. Ann Rev Sex Res. 2005; 16(1): 119-153.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Glaser R, Pearson GR, Jones JF, et al. Stress-related activation of Epstein–Barr virus. Brain Behav Immun. 1991; 5: 219-232.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Owen N, Poulton T, Hay FC, Mohamed-Ali V, Steptoe A. Socioeconomic status, C-reactive protein, immune factors, and responses to acute mental stress. Brain Behav Immun. 17(4): 286–295.

  25. Tracy RP, Psaty BM, Macy E, et al. Lifetime smoking exposure affects the association of C-reactive protein with cardiovascular disease risk factors and subclinical disease in healthy elderly subjects. Arterioscl Throm Vas. 1997; 17: 2167-2176.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Danese A, McEwen BS. Adverse childhood experiences, allostasis, allostatic load, and age-related disease. Physiol Behav. 2012; 106: 29-39.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Ridker PM. C-reactive protein, metabolic syndrome, and risk of incident cardiovascular events: An 8-year follow-up of 14,719 initially healthy American women. Circulation. 2003; 107: 391-397.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Yeun JY, Levine RA, Mantadilok V, Kaysen GA. C-reactive protein predicts all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis. 2000; 3: 469-476.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Kaptoge S, Di Angelantonio E, Lowe G, et al. C-reactive protein concentration and risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, and mortality: An individual participant meta-analysis. Lancet. 2010; 375: 132.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Pearson TA, Mensah GA, Alexander RW, et al. Markers of inflammation and cardiovascular disease application to clinical and public health practice: A statement for healthcare professionals from the centers for disease control and prevention and the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2003; 107: 499-511.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Cohen S, Herbert TB. Health psychology: Psychological factors and physical disease from the perspective of human psychoneuroimmunology. Annu Rev Psychol. 1996; 47: 113-142.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Alho H, Sillanaukee P, Kalela A, Jaakkola O, Laine S, Nikkari ST. Alcohol misuse increases serum antibodies to oxidized LDL and C-reactive protein. Alcohol Alcoholism. 2004; 39: 312-315.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Bertran N, Camps J, Fernandez-Ballart J, et al. Diet and lifestyle are associated with serum C-reactive protein concentrations in a population-based study. J Lab Clin Med. 2005; 145: 41-46.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Gentile M, Panico S, Rubba F, et al. Obesity, overweight, and weight gain over adult life are main determinants of elevated HS-CRP in a cohort of Mediterranean women. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2010; 64: 873-878.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Stämpfli MR, Anderson GP. How cigarette smoke skews immune responses to promote infection, lung disease and cancer. Nat Rev Immunol. 2009; 9: 377-384.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Harris TB, Ferrucci L, Tracy RP, et al. Associations of elevated interleukin-6 and C-reactive protein levels with mortality in the elderly. Am J Med. 1999; 106: 506-512.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Greenberg AS, Obin MS. Obesity and the role of adipose tissue in inflammation and metabolism. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006; 83: 461S-465S.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Slopen N, Kubzansky LD, McLaughlin KA, Koenen KC. Childhood adversity and inflammatory processes in youth: A prospective study. Psychoneuroendocrino. 2013; 38: 188-200.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Glaser R, Pearl DK, Kiecolt-Glaser JK, Malarkey WB. Plasma cortisol levels and reactivation of latent Epstein–Barr virus in response to examination stress. Psychoneuroendocrino. 1994; 19: 765-772.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Glaser R, Padgett DA, Litsky ML, et al. Stress-associated changes in the steady-state expression of latent Epstein–Barr virus: Implications for chronic fatigue syndrome and cancer. Brain Behav Immun. 2005; 19: 91-103.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Jones JF, Straus SE. Chronic Epstein–Barr virus infection. Annu Rev Med. 1987; 38: 195-209.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Thompson MP, Kurzrock R. Epstein–Barr virus and cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2004; 10: 803-821.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Godbout JP, Glaser R. Stress-induced immune dysregulation: Implications for wound healing, infectious disease and cancer. J Neuroimmune Pharm. 2006; 1: 421-427.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Ascherio A, Munch M. Epstein–Barr virus and multiple sclerosis. Epidemiology. 2000; 11: 220-224.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Ascherio A, Munger KL, Lennette ET, et al. Epstein–Barr virus antibodies and risk of multiple sclerosis. JAMA-J Am Med Assoc. 2001; 286: 3083-3088.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Hiles SA, Baker AL, de Malmanche T, Attia J. Interleukin-6, C-reactive protein and interleukin-10 after antidepressant treatment in people with depression: A meta-analysis. Psychol Med. 2012; 42: 2015-2026.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Dube SR, Fairweather D, Pearson WS, Felitti VJ, Anda RF, Croft JB. Cumulative childhood stress and autoimmune diseases in adults. Psychosom Med. 2009; 71: 243-250.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Copeland WE, Shanahan L, Worthman C, Angold A, Costello EJ. Cumulative depression episodes predict later C-reactive protein levels: A prospective analysis. Biolo Psychiat. 2012; 71: 15-21.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Lee JGL, Blosnich JR, Melvin CL. Up in smoke: Vanishing evidence of tobacco disparities in the Institute of Medicine’s report on sexual and gender minority health. Am J Public Health. 2012; 102: 1-3.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Hughes T. Alcohol use and alcohol-related problems among sexual minority women. Alcoholism Treat Quart. 2011; 29: 403-435.

    Google Scholar 

  51. McCabe SE, Hughes TL, Bostwick WB, West BT, Boyd CJ. Sexual orientation, substance use behaviors and substance dependence in the United States. Addiction. 2009; 104: 1333-1345.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. French SA, Story M, Remafedi G, Resnick MD, Blum RW. Sexual orientation and prevalence of body dissatisfaction and eating disordered behaviors: A population-based study of adolescents. Int J Eat Disorder. 1996; 19: 119-126.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Austin SB, Nelson LA, Birkett MA, Calzo JP, Everett B. Eating disorder symptoms and obesity at the intersections of gender, ethnicity, and sexual orientation in US high school students. Am J Public Health. 2013; 2: e16-e22.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Boehmer U, Bowen DJ, Bauer GR. Overweight and obesity in sexual-minority women: Evidence from population-based data. Am J Public Health. 2007; 97: 1134-1140.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Lakoski SG, Cushman M, Criqui M, et al. Gender and C-reactive protein: Data from the Multiethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) cohort. Am Heart J. 2006; 152: 593-598.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Khera A, McGuire DK, Murphy SA, et al. Race and gender differences in C-reactive protein levels. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005; 46: 464-469.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Saltevo J, Vanhala M, Kautiainen H, Kumpusalo E, Laakso M. Gender differences in C-reactive protein, interleukin-1 receptor antagonist and adiponectin levels in the metabolic syndrome: A population-based study. Diabetic Med. 2008; 25: 747-750.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Valentine RJ, McAuley E, Vieira VJ, et al. Sex differences in the relationship between obesity, C-reactive protein, physical activity, depression, sleep quality and fatigue in older adults. Brain Behav Immun. 2009; 23: 643-648.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Wang TN, Lin MC, Wu CC, et al. Role of gender disparity of circulating high-sensitivity C-reactive protein concentrations and obesity on asthma in Taiwan. Clin Exp Allergy. 2011; 41: 72-77.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Ishii S, Karlamangla AS, Bote M, et al. Gender, obesity and repeated elevation of C-reactive protein: Data from the CARDIA cohort. PLoS ONE. 2012; 7(4): e36062.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. McDade TW, Stallings JF, Angold A, et al. Epstein–Barr virus antibodies in whole blood spots: A minimally invasive method for assessing an aspect of cell-mediated immunity. Psychosom Med. 2000; 62: 560-568.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Villacres MC, Longmate J, Auge C, Diamond DJ. Predominant type 1 CMV-Specific memory T-helper response in humans: Evidence for gender differences in cytokine secretion. Hum Immunol. 2004; 65: 476-485.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Green MS, Cohen D, Slepon R, Robin G, Wiener M. Ethnic and gender differences in the prevalence of anti-cytomegalovirus antibodies among young adults in Israel. Int J Epidemiol. 1993; 22: 720-723.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Skouby SO, Gram J, Andersen LF, Sidelmann J, Petersen KR, Jespersen J. Hormone replacement therapy: Estrogen and progestin effects on plasma C-reactive protein concentrations. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002; 186: 969-977.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Cushman M. Effects of hormone replacement therapy and estrogen receptor modulators on markers of inflammation and coagulation. Am J Cardiol. 2002; 90: F7-F10.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Yudkin JS, Stehouwer C, Emeis J, Coppack S. C-reactive protein in healthy subjects: Associations with obesity, insulin resistance, and endothelial dysfunction: A potential role for cytokines originating from adipose tissue? Arterioscl Throm Vas. 1999; 19: 972-978.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Hewitt PL, Flett GL, Mosher SW. The perceived stress scale: Factor structure and relation to depression symptoms in a psychiatric sample. J Psychopath Behav. 1992; 14: 247-257.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Ge X, Conger RD, Elder GH. Pubertal transition, stressful life events, and the emergence of gender differences in adolescent depressive symptoms. Dev Psychol. 2001; 37: 404-416.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Hyde JS, Mezulis AH, Abramson LY. The ABCs of depression: Integrating affective, biological, and cognitive models to explain the emergence of the gender difference in depression. Psychol Rev. 2008; 115: 291-313.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Rudolph KD, Hammen C. Age and gender as determinants of stress exposure, generation, and reactions in youngsters: A transactional perspective. Child Dev. 1999; 70: 660-677.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Piko B. Gender differences and similarities in adolescents’ ways of coping. Psychol Rec. 2011; 51: 223-235.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Leadbeater BJ, Kuperminc GP, Blatt SJ, Hertzog C. A multivariate model of gender differences in adolescents’ internalizing and externalizing problems. Dev Psychol. 1999; 35: 1268-1282.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Tamres LK, Janicki D, Helgeson VS. Sex differences in coping behavior: A meta-analytic review and an examination of relative coping. Pers Soc Psychol Rev. 2002; 6: 2-30.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Nolen-Hoeksema S. Emotion regulation and psychopathology: The role of gender. Ann Rev Clin Psycho. 2012; 8: 161-187.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Nolen-Hoeksema S, Aldao A. Gender and age differences in emotion regulation strategies and their relationship to depressive symptoms. Pers Indiv Differ. 2011; 51: 704-708.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Danner M, Kasl SV, Abramson JL, Vaccarino V. Association between depression and elevated C-reactive protein. Psychosom Med. 2003; 65: 347-356.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Howren MB, Lamkin DM, Suls J. Associations of depression with C-reactive protein, IL-1, and IL-6: A meta-analysis. Psychosom Med. 2009; 71: 171-186.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Ford DE, Erlinger TP. Depression and C-reactive protein in US adults: Data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arch Intern Med. 2004; 164: 1010-1014.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. D’augelli AR, Grossman AH, Starks MT. Gender atypicality and sexual orientation development among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. J Gay Lesbian Mental Health. 2008; 12: 121-143.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Rieger G, Linsenmeier JAW, Gygax L, Bailey JM. Sexual orientation and childhood sex atypicality: Evidence from home movies. Dev Psychol. 2006; 44: 46-58.

    Google Scholar 

  81. Lippa RA. Sex Differences and sexual orientation differences in personality: Findings from the BBC internet survey. Arch Sex Behav. 2008; 37: 173-187.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Everett BG, Mollborn S. Examining sexual orientation disparities in unmet medical needs among men and women. Popul Res Policy Rev. 2013: e1–25.

  83. Carver CS, Connor-Smith J. Personality and coping. Annu Rev Psychol. 2010; 61: 679-704.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Rosario M, Hunter J, Gwadz M. Exploration of substance use among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth prevalence and correlates. J Adolescent Res. 1997; 12: 454-476.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Marshal MP, Friedman MS, Stall R, et al. Sexual orientation and adolescent substance use: A meta-analysis and methodological review. Addiction. 2008; 103: 546-556.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Austin SB, Ziyadeh NJ, Corliss HL, et al. Sexual orientation disparities in purging and binge eating from early to late adolescence. J Adolescent Health. 2009; 45: 238-245.

    Google Scholar 

  87. Juster R-P, Smith NG, Ouellet É, Sindi S, Lupien SJ. Sexual orientation and disclosure in relation to psychiatric symptoms, diurnal cortisol, and allostatic load. Psychosom Med. 2013; 75: 103-116.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Bearman PS, Jones J, Udry JR. The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health: Research Design. Available at http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/addhealth/design.html. Accessed September 1, 2013.

  89. Ockene IS, Matthews CE, Rifai N, Ridker PM, Reed G, Stanek E. Variability and classification accuracy of serial high-sensitivity C-reactive protein measurements in healthy adults. Clin Chem. 2001; 47: 444-450.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Taylor SE, Lehman BJ, Kiefe CI, Seeman TE. Relationship of early life stress and psychological functioning to adult C-reactive protein in the coronary artery risk development in young adults study. Biol Psychiat. 2006; 60: 819-824.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Dowd JB, Palermo T, Brite J, McDade TW, Aiello A. Seroprevalence of Epstein–Barr virus infection in US children ages 6–19, 2003–2010. PLoS One. 2013; 8: e64921.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. McDade TW, Burhop J, Dohnal J. High-sensitivity enzyme immunoassay for C-reactive protein in dried blood spots. Clin Chem. 2004; 50: 652-654.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Katz-Wise SL, Hyde JS. Victimization experiences of lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals: A meta-analysis. J Sex Res. 2012; 49: 142-167.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Cohen S, Kamarck T, Mermelstein R. A global measure of perceived stress. J Health Soc Behav. 1983; 24: 385-396.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Radloff LS. The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Apl Psych Meas. 1977; 1: 385-401.

    Google Scholar 

  96. World Health Organization. Obesity: Preventing and managing the global epidemic. Report of a WHO Consultation. WHO Technical Report Series no. 894. WHO: Geneva. 2000.

  97. Wallien MSC, Veenstra R, Kreukels BPC, Cohen-Kettenis PT. Peer group status of gender dysphoric children: A sociometric study. Arch Sex Behav. 2010; 39: 553-560.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Skidmore WC, Linsenmeier JA, Bailey JM. Gender nonconformity and psychological distress in lesbians and gay men. Arch Sex Behav. 2006; 35: 685-697.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Roberts AL, Rosario M, Slopen N, Calzo JP, Austin SB. Childhood gender nonconformity, bullying victimization, and depressive symptoms across adolescence and early adulthood: An 11-year longitudinal study. J Am Acad Child Psy. 2013; 52: 143-152.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Roberts AL, Rosario M, Corliss HL, Koenen KC, Austin SB. Elevated risk of posttraumatic stress in sexual minority youths: Mediation by childhood abuse and gender nonconformity. Am J Public Health. 2012; 102: 1587-1593.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Roberts AL, Rosario M, Corliss HL, Koenen KC, Austin SB. Childhood gender nonconformity: A risk indicator for childhood abuse and posttraumatic stress in youth. Pediatrics. 2012; 129: 410-417.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Impett EA, Sorsoli L, Schooler D, Henson JM, Tolman DL. Girls’ relationship authenticity and self-esteem across adolescence. Dev Psychol. 2008; 44: 722-732.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Thornton B, Leo R. Gender typing, importance of multiple roles, and mental health consequences for women. Sex Roles. 1992; 27: 307-317.

    Google Scholar 

  104. Wong PT, Kettlewell G, Sproule CF. On the importance of being masculine: Sex role, attribution, and women’s career achievement. Sex Roles. 1985; 12: 757-769.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Rosario M, Scrimshaw E. Theories and Etiologies of Sexual Orientation. In: APA Handbook of Sexuality and Psychology: Vol 1. Person-based approaches. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association

  106. Pearcey SM, Docherty KJ, Dabbs JM Jr. Testosterone and sex role identification in lesbian couples. Physiol Behav. 1996; 60: 1033-1035.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Cunningham TJ, Seeman TE, Kawachi I, et al. Racial/ethnic and gender differences in the association between self-reported experiences of racial/ethnic discrimination and inflammation in the CARDIA cohort of 4 US communities. Soc Sci Med. 2012; 75: 922-931.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Ford JL, Stowe RP. Racial–ethnic differences in Epstein–Barr virus antibody titers among U.S. children and adolescents. Ann Epidemiol. 2013; 23: 275-280.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Karlamangla AS, Merkin SS, Crimmins EM, Seeman TE. Socioeconomic and ethnic disparities in cardiovascular risk in the United States, 2001–2006. Ann Epidemiol. 2010; 20: 617-628.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Aknowledgements

This study is supported by NICHD grant R03 HD062597 and by the Office of Research on Women’s Health (ORWH), NICHD grant K12HD055892, and by the University of Colorado Population Center (grant R24 HD066613) through administrative and computing support. SB Austin is supported by NICHD grant R01 HD066963 and Maternal and Child Health Bureau, Health Resources and Services Administration, training grants MC00001 and Leadership Education in Adolescent Health Project 6T71-MC00009. K McLaughlin is supported by NIH grant K01-MH092526. The authors thank the anonymous reviewers for their insightful and helpful comments. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health, the CDC, or any agencies involved in collecting the data.

Conflict of Interest

The authors have no conflicts to disclose.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Sociology, University of Illinois at Chicago, 4112 BSB, 1007 W Harrison St, Chicago, IL, 60607-7140, USA

    Bethany G. Everett PhD

  2. Department of Psychology, The City College and Graduate Center, The City University of New York, New York, NY, USA

    Margaret Rosario PhD

  3. Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA

    Katie A. McLaughlin PhD

  4. Division of Adolescent and Young Adult Medicine, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA, USA

    S. Bryn Austin ScD

  5. Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA

    S. Bryn Austin ScD

  6. Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA

    S. Bryn Austin ScD

Authors
  1. Bethany G. Everett PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Margaret Rosario PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Katie A. McLaughlin PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. S. Bryn Austin ScD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bethany G. Everett PhD.

About this article

Cite this article

Everett, B.G., Rosario, M., McLaughlin, K.A. et al. Sexual Orientation and Gender Differences in Markers of Inflammation and Immune Functioning. ann. behav. med. 47, 57–70 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-013-9567-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-013-9567-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation