Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Prenatal Calcium and Vitamin D Intake, and Bone Mass in Later Life

  • Nutrition, Exercise, and Lifestyle in Osteoporosis (C Weaver and S Ferrari, Section Editors)
  • Published:
Current Osteoporosis Reports Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The aging population will result in an increasing burden of osteoporotic fractures, necessitating the identification of novel strategies for prevention. There is increasing recognition that factors in utero may influence bone mineral accrual, and, thus, osteoporosis risk. The role of calcium and vitamin D has received much attention in recent years, and in this review, we will survey available studies relating maternal calcium and vitamin D status during pregnancy to offspring bone development. The evidence base supporting a positive influence on intrauterine skeletal growth appears somewhat stronger for maternal 25(OH)-vitamin D concentration than for calcium intake, and the available data point toward the need for high-quality randomized controlled trials in order to inform public health policy. It is only with such a rigorous approach that it will be possible to delineate the optimal strategy for vitamin D supplementation in pregnancy in relation to offspring bone health.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: • Of importance •• Of major importance

  1. Osteoporosis prevention, diagnosis, and therapy. NIH Consensus Statement JID - 9308532. 2000;17(1):1–45.

  2. Center JR, Nguyen TV, Schneider D, Sambrook PN, Eisman JA. Mortality after all major types of osteoporotic fracture in men and women: an observational study. Lancet. 1999;353(9156):878–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Compston J, Cooper A, Cooper C, Francis R, Kanis JA, Marsh D, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women and men from the age of 50 years in the UK. Maturitas. 2009;62(2):105–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Cooper C, Campion G, Melton III LJ. Hip fractures in the elderly: a world-wide projection. Osteoporos Int. 1992;2(6):285–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Cummings SR, Black DM, Nevitt MC, Browner W, Cauley J, Ensrud K, et al. Bone density at various sites for prediction of hip fractures. The Study of Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group. Lancet. 1993;341(8837):72–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Ferrari S, Rizzoli R, Bonjour JP. Heritable and nutritional influences on bone mineral mass. Aging. 1998;10(3):205–13.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Hernandez CJ, Beaupre GS, Carter DR. A theoretical analysis of the relative influences of peak BMD, age-related bone loss and menopause on the development of osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int. 2003;14(10):843–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Pocock NA, Eisman JA, Hopper JL, Yeates MG, Sambrook PN, Eberl S. Genetic determinants of bone mass in adults. A twin study. J Clin Invest. 1987;80(3):706–10. doi:10.1172/jci113125.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Videman T, Levalahti E, Battie MC, Simonen R, Vanninen E, Kaprio J. Heritability of BMD of femoral neck and lumbar spine: a multivariate twin study of Finnish men. J Bone Miner Res. 2007;22(9):1455–62. doi:10.1359/jbmr.070606.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Baird J, Kurshid MA, Kim M, Harvey N, Dennison E, Cooper C. Does birthweight predict bone mass in adulthood? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Osteoporos Int. 2011;22(5):1323–34. doi:10.1007/s00198-010-1344-9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Harvey NC, Javaid MK, Arden NK, Poole JR, Crozier SR, Robinson SM, et al. Maternal predictors of neonatal bone size and geometry: the Southampton Women's Survey. J Dev Orig Health Dis. 2010;1(1):35–41. doi:10.1017/s2040174409990055.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Cole ZA, Gale CR, Javaid MK, Robinson SM, Law C, Boucher BJ, et al. Maternal dietary patterns during pregnancy and childhood bone mass: a longitudinal study. J Bone Miner Res. 2009;24(4):663–8. doi:10.1359/jbmr.081212.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Forestier F, Daffos F, Rainaut M, Bruneau M, Trivin F. Blood chemistry of normal human fetuses at midtrimester of pregnancy. Pediatr Res. 1987;21(6):579–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Moore KL, Persaud TVN. The developing human. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders; 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Kovacs CS, Chafe LL, Fudge NJ, Friel JK, Manley NR. PTH regulates fetal blood calcium and skeletal mineralization independently of PTHrP. Endocrinology. 2001;142(11):4983–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Kovacs CS. Skeletal physiology: fetus and neonate. In: Favus MJ, editor. Primer on the metabolic bone diseases and disorders of mineral metabolism. Washington: ASBMR; 2003. p. 65–71.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Weir EC, Philbrick WM, Amling M, Neff LA, Baron R, Broadus AE. Targeted overexpression of parathyroid hormone-related peptide in chondrocytes causes chondrodysplasia and delayed endochondral bone formation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996;93(19):10240–5. JID - 7505876.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Calvi LM, Sims NA, Hunzelman JL, Knight MC, Giovannetti A, Saxton JM, et al. Activated parathyroid hormone/parathyroid hormone-related protein receptor in osteoblastic cells differentially affects cortical and trabecular bone. J Clin Invest. 2001;107(3):277–86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Schipani E, Provot S. PTHrP, PTH, and the PTH/PTHrP receptor in endochondral bone development. Birth Defects Res C Embryo Today. 2003;69(4):352–62. doi:10.1002/bdrc.10028.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Belkacemi L, Bedard I, Simoneau L, Lafond J. Calcium channels, transporters and exchangers in placenta: a review. Cell Calcium. 2005;37(1):1–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Glazier JD, Atkinson DE, Thornburg KL, Sharpe PT, Edwards D, Boyd RD, et al. Gestational changes in Ca2+ transport across rat placenta and mRNA for calbindin9K and Ca(2+)-ATPase. Am J Physiol. 1992;263(4 Pt 2):R930–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Martin R, Harvey NC, Crozier SR, Poole JR, Javaid MK, Dennison EM, et al. Placental calcium transporter (PMCA3) gene expression predicts intrauterine bone mineral accrual. Bone. 2007;40(5):1203–8. doi:10.1016/j.bone.2006.12.060.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Kip SN, Strehler EE. Vitamin D3 upregulates plasma membrane Ca2 + -ATPase expression and potentiates apico-basal Ca2+ flux in MDCK cells. Am J Physiol Ren Physiol. 2004;286(2):F363–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Jaenisch R, Bird A. Epigenetic regulation of gene expression: how the genome integrates intrinsic and environmental signals. Nat Genet. 2003;33(Suppl):245–54. doi:10.1038/ng1089.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Gicquel C, El-Osta A, Le Bouc Y. Epigenetic regulation and fetal programming. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;22(1):1–16. doi:10.1016/j.beem.2007.07.009.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Tang WY, Ho SM. Epigenetic reprogramming and imprinting in origins of disease. Rev Endocrinol Metab Disord. 2007;8(2):173–82. doi:10.1007/s11154-007-9042-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Harvey NC, Sheppard A, Godfrey KM, McLean C, Garratt E, Ntani G, et al. Childhood bone mineral content is associated with methylation status of the RXRA promoter at birth. J Bone Miner Res. 2014;29(3):600–7. doi:10.1002/jbmr.2056.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Ganpule A, Yajnik CS, Fall CHD, Rao S, Fisher DJ, Kanade A, et al. Bone mass in Indian children—relationships to maternal nutritional status and diet during pregnancy: the Pune Maternal Nutrition Study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(8):2994–3001. doi:10.1210/jc.2005-2431.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Heppe DH, Medina-Gomez C, Hofman A, Franco OH, Rivadeneira F, Jaddoe VW. Maternal first-trimester diet and childhood bone mass: the Generation R Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2013;98(1):224–32. doi:10.3945/ajcn.112.051052.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Tobias JH, Steer CD, Emmett PM, Tonkin RJ, Cooper C, Ness AR. Bone mass in childhood is related to maternal diet in pregnancy. Osteoporos Int. 2005;16(12):1731–41. doi:10.1007/s00198-005-1912-6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Jones G, Riley MD, Dwyer T. Maternal diet during pregnancy is associated with bone mineral density in children: a longitudinal study. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2000;54(10):749–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Yin J, Dwyer T, Riley M, Cochrane J, Jones G. The association between maternal diet during pregnancy and bone mass of the children at age 16. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2010;64(2):131–7. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2009.117.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Jarjou LM, Prentice A, Sawo Y, Laskey MA, Bennett J, Goldberg GR, et al. Randomized, placebo-controlled, calcium supplementation study in pregnant Gambian women: effects on breast-milk calcium concentrations and infant birth weight, growth, and bone mineral accretion in the first year of life. Am J C Nutr. 2006;83(3):657–66.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Koo WW, Walters JC, Esterlitz J, Levine RJ, Bush AJ, Sibai B. Maternal calcium supplementation and fetal bone mineralization. Obstet Gynecol. 1999;94(4):577–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Raman L, Rajalakshmi K, Krishnamachari KA, Sastry JG. Effect of calcium supplementation to undernourished mothers during pregnancy on the bone density of the bone density of the neonates. Am J Clin Nutr. 1978;31(3):466–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Jarjou LM, Sawo Y, Goldberg GR, Laskey MA, Cole TJ, Prentice A. Unexpected long-term effects of calcium supplementation in pregnancy on maternal bone outcomes in women with a low calcium intake: a follow-up study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2013;98(3):723–30. doi:10.3945/ajcn.113.061630.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Macdonald HM, Mavroeidi A, Fraser WD, Darling AL, Black AJ, Aucott L, et al. Sunlight and dietary contributions to the seasonal vitamin D status of cohorts of healthy postmenopausal women living at northerly latitudes: a major cause for concern? Osteoporos Int. 2011;22(9):2461–72. Helpful comprehensive of 25 (OH)D concentrations by ethnicity and latitude in the UK.

  38. Robinson PD, Hogler W, Craig ME, Verge CF, Walker JL, Piper AC, et al. The re-emerging burden of rickets: a decade of experience from Sydney. Arch Dis Child. 2006;91(7):564–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Ahmed SF, Franey C, McDevitt H, Somerville L, Butler S, Galloway P, et al. Recent trends and clinical features of childhood vitamin D deficiency presenting to a children's hospital in Glasgow. Arch Dis Child. 2011;96(7):694–6. doi:10.1136/adc.2009.173195.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Javaid MK, Crozier SR, Harvey NC, Gale CR, Dennison EM, Boucher BJ, et al. Maternal vitamin D status during pregnancy and childhood bone mass at age 9 years: a longitudinal study. Lancet. 2006;367(9504):36–43. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(06)67922-1.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. McAree T, Jacobs B, Manickavasagar T, Sivalokanathan S, Brennan L, Bassett P, et al. Vitamin D deficiency in pregnancy—still a public health issue. Matern Child Nutr. 2013;9(1):23–30. doi:10.1111/mcn.12014.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Dawodu A, Tsang RC. Maternal vitamin D status: effect on milk vitamin D content and vitamin D status of breastfeeding infants. Adv Nutr. 2012;3(3):353–61. doi:10.3945/an.111.000950.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Moncrieff M, Fadahunsi TO. Congenital rickets due to maternal vitamin D deficiency. Arch Dis Child. 1974;49(10):810–1.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Innes AM, Seshia MM, Prasad C, Al SS, Friesen FR, Chudley AE, et al. Congenital rickets caused by maternal vitamin D deficiency. Paediatr Child Health. 2002;7(7):455–8.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Orbak Z, Karacan M, Doneray H, Karakelleoglu C. Congenital rickets presenting with hypocalcaemic seizures. West Indian Med J. 2007;56(4):364–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Anatoliotaki M, Tsilimigaki A, Tsekoura T, Schinaki A, Stefanaki S, Nicolaidou P. Congenital rickets due to maternal vitamin D deficiency in a sunny island of Greece. Acta Paediatr. 2003;92(3):389–91.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Harvey NCH, Ntani, G, Javaid MK, Cooper P, Moon R, Cole, Z, et al. Vitamin D supplementation in pregnancy: a systematic review. HTA Journal. 2013; [In press]. A comprehensive systematic review of literature relating maternal vitamin D status in pregnancy to maternal and offspriing health outcomes.

  48. Ioannou C, Javaid MK, Mahon P, Yaqub MK, Harvey NC, Godfrey KM, et al. The effect of maternal vitamin D concentration on fetal bone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012;97(11):E2070–7. doi:10.1210/jc.2012-2538.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Mahon P, Harvey N, Crozier S, Inskip H, Robinson S, Arden N, et al. Low maternal vitamin D status and fetal bone development: cohort study. J Bone Miner Res. 2010;25(1):14–9. doi:10.1359/jbmr.090701. Description of alterations in fetal distal femoral morphology associated with maternal vitamin D status in pregancy. These results suggest that maternal serum 25(OH)D may be important as early as 19 weeks gestation.

  50. Young BE, McNanley TJ, Cooper EM, McIntyre AW, Witter F, Harris ZL, et al. Maternal vitamin D status and calcium intake interact to affect fetal skeletal growth in utero in pregnant adolescents. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012;95(5):1103–12. doi:10.3945/ajcn.111.023861.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Namgung R, Tsang RC, Lee C, Han DG, Ho ML, Sierra RI. Low total body bone mineral content and high bone resorption in Korean winter-born vs summer-born newborn infants. J Pediatr. 1998;132(3 Pt 1):421–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Weiler H, Fitzpatrick-Wong S, Veitch R, Kovacs H, Schellenberg J, McCloy U, et al. Vitamin D deficiency and whole-body and femur bone mass relative to weight in healthy newborns. CMAJ. 2005;172(6):757–61. doi:10.1503/cmaj.1040508.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Viljakainen HT, Korhonen T, Hytinantti T, Laitinen EK, Andersson S, Makitie O, et al. Maternal vitamin D status affects bone growth in early childhood—a prospective cohort study. Osteoporos Int. 2011;22(3):883–91. doi:10.1007/s00198-010-1499-4. Further evidence for associations between 25(OH)D exposure in utero and lower limb bone morphology, assessed by tibial pQCT.

  54. Zhu K, Whitehouse AJ, Hart P, Kusel M, Mountain J, Lye S, et al. Maternal Vitamin D status during pregnancy and bone mass in offspring at 20 years of age: a prospective cohort study. J Bone Miner Res. 2013: Epub ahead of print [In Press]. doi:10.1002/jbmr.2138. Most recent cohort study demonstrating positive associations between maternal 25(OH)D in pregnancy and offspring bone mass in young adulthood, that is, peak bone mass.

  55. Dror DK. Vitamin D, status during pregnancy: maternal, fetal, and postnatal outcomes. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol. 2011;23(6):422–6. doi:10.1097/GCO.0b013e32834cb791.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Lawlor DA, Wills AK, Fraser A, Sayers A, Fraser WD, Tobias JH. Association of maternal vitamin D status during pregnancy with bone-mineral content in offspring: a prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2013;381(9884):2176–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Sayers A, Tilling K, Boucher BJ, Noonan K, Tobias JH. Predicting ambient ultraviolet from routine meteorological data: its potential use as an instrumental variable for vitamin D status in pregnancy in a longitudinal birth cohort in the UK. Int J Epidemiol. 2009;38(6):1681–8. doi:10.1093/ije/dyp237.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Sayers A, Tobias JH. Estimated maternal ultraviolet B exposure levels in pregnancy influence skeletal development of the child. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;94(3):765–71. doi:10.1210/jc.2008-2146.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Abrahamsen B, Heitmann BL, Eiken PA. Season of birth and the risk of hip fracture in Danish men and women aged 65+. Front Endocrinol. 2012;3:2. doi:10.3389/fendo.2012.00002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Cockburn F, Belton NR, Purvis RJ, Giles MM, Brown JK, Turner TL, et al. Maternal vitamin D intake and mineral metabolism in mothers and their newborn infants. Br Med J. 1980;281(6232):11–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Brooke OG, Brown IR, Bone CD, Carter ND, Cleeve HJ, Maxwell JD, et al. Vitamin D supplements in pregnant Asian women: effects on calcium status and fetal growth. Br Med J. 1980;280(6216):751–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Congdon P, Horsman A, Kirby PA, Dibble J, Bashir T. Mineral content of the forearms of babies born to Asian and white mothers. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1983;286(6373):1233–5.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Delvin EE, Salle BL, Glorieux FH, Adeleine P, David LS. Vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy: effect on neonatal calcium homeostasis. J Pediatr. 1986;109(2):328–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Marya RK, Rathee S, Dua V, Sangwan K. Effect of vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy on fetal growth. Indian J Med Res. 1988;88:488–92.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Marya RK, Rathee S, Lata V, Mudgil S. Effects of vitamin D supplementation in pregnancy. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 1981;12(3):155–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Mallet E, Gugi B, Brunelle P, Henocq A, Basuyau JP, Lemeur H. Vitamin D supplementation in pregnancy: a controlled trial of two methods. Obstet Gynecol. 1986;68(3):300–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Dawodu A, Saadi HF, Bekdache G, Javed Y, Altaye M, Hollis BW. Randomized controlled trial (RCT) of vitamin D supplementation in pregnancy in a population with endemic vitamin D deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98(6):2337–46. doi:10.1210/jc.2013-1154.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Roth DE, Al Mahmud A, Raqib R, Akhtar E, Perumal N, Pezzack B, et al. Randomized placebo-controlled trial of high-dose prenatal third-trimester vitamin D3 supplementation in Bangladesh: the AViDD trial. Nutr J. 2013;12(1):47. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-12-47.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Wagner CL, McNeil RB, Johnson DD, Hulsey TC, Ebeling M, Robinson C, et al. Health characteristics and outcomes of two randomized vitamin D supplementation trials during pregnancy: a combined analysis. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2013;136:313–20. doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.01.002.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Hollis BW, Johnson D, Hulsey TC, Ebeling M, Wagner CL. Vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy: double-blind, randomized clinical trial of safety and effectiveness. J Bone Miner Res. 2011;26(10):2341–57. doi:10.1002/jbmr.463.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Wagner CL, McNeil R, Hamilton SA, Winkler J, Rodriguez Cook C, Warner G, et al. A randomized trial of vitamin D supplementation in 2 community health center networks in South Carolina. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2013;208(2):137.e1–13. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2012.10.888.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Mahomed K, Gulmezoglu AM. Vitamin D supplementation in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;2, CD000228.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Clinical Guideline 62: Antenatal Care. Issued March 2008 (modified June 2010).

  74. Harvey NC, Javaid K, Bishop N, Kennedy S, Papageorghiou AT, Fraser R, et al. MAVIDOS Maternal Vitamin D Osteoporosis Study: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. The MAVIDOS Study Group. Trials. 2012;13:13. doi:10.1186/1745-6215-13-13. Methods of the MAVIDOS study, in which woman are randomised to 1000IU cholecalciferol or matched placebo daily from 14 weeks gestation until delivery of the bady, with neonatal whole body BMC BY DXA as the primary outcome.

  75. Harvey NC, Cooper C. Vitamin D: some perspective please. BMJ. 2012;345:e4695. doi:10.1136/bmj.e4695.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Grant CC, Stewart AW, Scragg R, Milne T, Rowden J, Ekeroma A, et al. Vitamin D during pregnancy and infancy and infant serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration. Pediatrics. 2014;133(1):e143–53. doi:10.1542/peds.2013–2602.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Yu CK, Sykes L, Sethi M, Teoh TG, Robinson S. Vitamin D deficiency and supplementation during pregnancy. Clin Endocrinol. 2009;70(5):685–90. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2265.2008.03403.x.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Medical Research Council (UK), Arthritis Research UK, National Osteoporosis Society (UK), International Osteoporosis Foundation, and NIHR for funding this work.

Compliance with Ethics Guidelines

ᅟ

Conflict of Interest

E. M. Curtis, R. J. Moon, and E. M. Dennison declare that they have no conflicts of interest. N. C. Harvey has received consultant fees from Internis Pharma and Consilient Healthcare and honoraria from Servier, Eli Lilley, AFBBH, Shire, and Amgen.

Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent

All studies by Elizabeth Curtis, Rebecca Moon, Elaine Dennison, and Nicholas Harvey involving animal and/or human subjects were performed after approval by the appropriate institutional review boards. When required, written informed consent was obtained from all participants.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. MRC Lifecourse Epidemiology Unit, University of Southampton, Southampton General Hospital, Tremona Road, Southampton, SO16 6YD, UK

    Elizabeth M. Curtis, Rebecca J. Moon, Elaine M. Dennison & Nicholas C. Harvey

Authors
  1. Elizabeth M. Curtis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Rebecca J. Moon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Elaine M. Dennison
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Nicholas C. Harvey
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nicholas C. Harvey.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Curtis, E.M., Moon, R.J., Dennison, E.M. et al. Prenatal Calcium and Vitamin D Intake, and Bone Mass in Later Life. Curr Osteoporos Rep 12, 194–204 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11914-014-0210-7

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11914-014-0210-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation