Abstract
Purpose
Dairying is a relatively intensive livestock production system and contributes to a range of environmental impacts. In the southern hemisphere, dairy farming systems are based mainly on outdoor grazing of permanent pastures. The objectives of this study were to (i) assess environmental profiles and (ii) to identify environmental hotspots in a pasture-based dairy farming system.
Methods
A cradle-to-farm gate life cycle assessment of 53 dairy farms in the Waikato region, New Zealand, was carried out, using 1 kg of fat- and protein-corrected milk as the functional unit. Twelve environmental impact categories were assessed: climate change (CC), ozone depletion potential (ODP), cancer effects (Cancer), non-cancer effects (non-cancer), particulate matter (PM), ionizing radiation (IR), photochemical ozone formation potential (POFP), acidification potential (AP), terrestrial eutrophication potential (TEP), freshwater eutrophication potential (FEP), marine eutrophication potential (MEP) and ecotoxicity for aquatic freshwater (Ecotox). Contribution and sensitivity analyses were performed to determine key hotspots and investigate potential changes in results due to methodological choices.
Results and discussion
The on-farm stage contributed >50 % of the total result for 7 out of 12 indicators (CC, Non-cancer, PM, POFP, AP, TEP, MEP). The off-farm rearing of replacement animals contributed 11–20 % to the total result for all indicators. The production of brought-in (from off-farm) feeds for use on the dairy farms contributed >10 % to the indicator results for Non-cancer (25 %), FEP (15 %), MEP (12 %) and Ecotox (19 %). The manufacturing of agrichemicals for use on the dairy farms contributed >10 % to the indicator results for ODP (26 %), Cancer (26 %), PM (19 %), IR (46 %), FEP (25 %) and Ecotox (42 %). The transportation of off-farm inputs for use on the dairy farms contributed >10 % to the impacts on ODP (15 %), IR (21 %) and POFP (11 %). Sensitivity analysis demonstrated the influence of choices associated with data sources, inventories and impact assessment models on the results.
Conclusions
The off-farm activities together contributed >50 % to 5 out of 12 impact indicator results, >45 % to a further two impact indicator results and 32 % of the CC result. Therefore, environmental improvement options should focus on both on-farm and off-farm activities. A focus on just one impact category (such as CC) risks ignoring the environmental hotspots that are revealed in a more comprehensive environmental assessment.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Agri-Footprint (2014) Agri-footprint: Description of data. V 1.0. Blonk Agri-footprint BV, Gouda, The Netherlands
Astudillo MF, Thalwitz G, Vollrath F (2014) Life cycle assessment of Indian silk. J Cleaner Prod 81:158–167
Audsley E, Alber S, Clift R, Cowell S, Crettaz P, Gaillard G, Hausheer J, Jolliet O, Kleijn R, Mortensen B, Pearce D, Teulon H, Weidema B, van Zeijts H (2003) Harmonisation of environmental life cycle assessment for agriculture
Basset-Mens C, Ledgard S, Boyes M (2009) Eco-efficiency of intensification scenarios for milk production in New Zealand. Ecol Econ 68(6):1615–1625
Battini F, Agostini A, Boulamanti AK, Giuntoli J, Amaducci S (2014) Mitigating the environmental impacts of milk production via anaerobic digestion of manure: case study of a dairy farm in the Po Valley. Sci Total Environ 481:196–208
Berthoud A, Maupu P, Huet C, Poupart A (2011) Assessing freshwater ecotoxicity of agricultural products in life cycle assessment (LCA): a case study of wheat using French agricultural practices databases and USEtox model. Int J Life Cycle Assess 16(8):841–847
Clark D, Malcolm B, Jacobs J (2013) Dairying in the antipodes: recent past, near prospects. Anim Prod Sci 53:882–893
DairyNZ (2011) New Zealand Dairy Statistics 2010/2011. DairyNZ Limited. www.dairynz.co.nz/dairystatistics
DairyNZ (2013) New Zealand Dairy Statistics 2012/2013. DairyNZ Limited. www.dairynz.co.nz/dairystatistics.
DairyNZ (2014) Young stock target liveweights. http://www.dairynz.co.nz.
de Vries M, de Boer IJM (2010) Comparing environmental impacts for livestock products: a review of life cycle assessments. Livest Sci 128(1-3):1–11
Del Prado A, Misselbrook T, Chadwick D, Hopkins A, Dewhurst RJ, Davison P, Butler A, Schroder J, Scholefield D (2011) SIMSDAIRY: a modelling framework to identify sustainable dairy farms in the UK. Framework description and test for organic systems and N fertiliser optimisation. Sci Total Environ 409(19):3993–4009
EC-JRC-IES (2010) International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook—general guide for life cycle assessment–detailed guidance. First edition edn. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg
EC-JRC-IES (2011) Recommendations based on existing environmental impact assessment models and factors for life cycle assessment in European context. ILCD Handbook-International Reference Life Cycle Data System. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg
ecoinvent Centre (2013) ecoinvent data v3.0. Swiss Centre for life cycle inventories. www.ecoinvent.org.
European Food SCP Roundtable (2013) ENVIFOOD Protocol, Environmental assessment of food and drink protocol. European Food Sustainable Consumption and Production Round Table (SCP RT), Working Group 1, Brussels, Belgium
Fantin V, Buttol P, Pergreffi R, Masoni P (2012) Life cycle assessment of Italian high quality milk production. A comparison with an EPD study. J Cleaner Prod 28:150–159
FAO (2006) Livestock’s long shadow: environmental issues and options. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome
FAO (2010) Greenhouse gas emissions from the dairy sector: a life cycle assessment. Food and Aricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome
Finnveden G, Hauschild MZ, Ekvall T, Guinée J, Heijungs R, Hellweg S, Koehler A, Pennington D, Suh S (2009) Recent developments in life cycle assessment. J Environ Manage 91(1):1–21
Flysjö A, Cederberg C, Henriksson M, Ledgard S (2011a) How does co-product handling affect the carbon footprint of milk? Case study of milk production in New Zealand and Sweden. Int J Life Cycle Assess 16(5):420–430
Flysjö A, Henriksson M, Cederberg C, Ledgard S, Englund J-E (2011b) The impact of various parameters on the carbon footprint of milk production in New Zealand and Sweden. Agric Syst 104(6):459–469
Gebrehanna MM, Gordon RJ, Madani A, VanderZaag AC, Wood JD (2014) Silage effluent management: a review. J Environ Manage 143:113–122
Guerci M, Bava L, Zucali M, Sandrucci A, Penati C, Tamburini A (2013) Effect of farming strategies on environmental impact of intensive dairy farms in Italy. J Dairy Res 80(03):300–308
Hasler K, Bröring S, Omta SWF, Olfs HW (2015) Life cycle assessment (LCA) of different fertilizer product types. Eur J Agron 69:41–51
Hauschild M, Goedkoop M, Guinée J, Heijungs R, Huijbregts M, Jolliet O, Margni M, Schryver A, Humbert S, Laurent A, Sala S, Pant R (2013) Identifying best existing practice for characterization modeling in life cycle impact assessment. Int J Life Cycle Assess 18(3):683–697
International Dairy Federation (2010) A common carbon footprint approach for dairy: The IDF guide to standard lifecycle assessment methodology for the dairy sector. Bulletin of the International Dairy Federation, Brussels
International Standard Organization (2006a) ISO 14040: Environmental management—life cycle assessment—principles and framework. International Standard Organization, Geneve
International Standard Organization (2006b) ISO 14044: Environmental management—life cycle assessment—requirements and guidelines. International Standard Organization, Geneve
Jarvis SC, Ledgard S (2002) Ammonia emissions from intensive dairying: a comparison of contrasting systems in the United Kingdom and New Zealand. Agr Ecosyst Environ 92(1):83–92
Kellogg R, Nehring R, Grube A, Goss D, Plotkin S (2002) Environmental indicators of pesticide leaching and runoff from farm fields. In: Ball VE, Norton G (eds) Agricultural Productivity, vol 2. Studies in Productivity and Efficiency. Springer US, pp 213-256
Kiefer LR, Menzel F, Bahrs E (2015) Integration of ecosystem services into the carbon footprint of milk of south German dairy farms. J Environ Manage 152:11–18
Kolver E Nutrition guidelines for the high producing dairy cow. In: Lomas J (ed) Proceedings of the Ruakura Dairy Farmers Conference, Hamilton, New Zealand, 2000. pp 17-28
Laurent A, Hauschild MZ (2014) Impacts of NMVOC emissions on human health in European countries for 2000–2010: use of sector-specific substance profiles. Atmos Environ 85:247–255
Ledgard S, Boyes M (2013) Temporal trends in use of supplementary feeds on farms in New Zealand: report prepared for Ministry for Primary Industries. AgResearch, New Zealand
Ledgard S, Brier G (2004) Estimation of the proportion of animal excreta transferred to the farm dairy effluent system. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. Wellington, New Zealand
Ledgard S, Schils R, Eriksen J, Luo J (2009) Environmental impacts of grazed clover/grass pastures. Irish J Agr Food Res 48(2):209–226
Ledgard SF, Boyes M, Brentrup F (2011) Life cycle assessment of local and imported fertilisers used on New Zealand farms. In: Currie LD, Christensen CL (eds) Adding to the knowledge base for the nutrient manager. Fertilizer and Lime Research Centre, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
MacLeod CJ, Moller H (2006) Intensification and diversification of New Zealand agriculture since 1960: an evaluation of current indicators of land use change. Agric Ecosyst Environ 115(1–4):201–218
Manktelow D, Stevens P, Walker J, Gurnsey S, Park N, Zabkiewicz J, Teulon D, Rahman A (2005) Trends in pesticide use in New Zealand: 2004. Ministry of the Environment, Wellington, New Zealand
McCarthy S, Hirst C, Donaghy D, Gray D, Wood B (2014) Opportunities to improve grazing management. In: Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association, pp 75-80
Ministry for Primary Industries (2013) Detailed methodologies for agricultural greenhouse gas emission calculation: version 2. Wellington, New Zealand
Ministry of Business Innovation and Employment (2013) Energy in New Zealand 2013. Wellington, New Zealand
Moot D, Mills A, Lucas D, Scott W (2009) Country pasture/forage resource profiles: New Zealand. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome
Myhre GDS, Bréon F-M, Collins W, Fuglestvedt J, Huang J, Koch D, Lamarque J-F, Lee D, Mendoza B, Nakajima T, Robock A, Stephens G, Takemura T, Zhang H (2013) Anthropogenic and natural radiative forcing. In: Stocker TF, Qin D, Plattner G-K (eds) Climate change 2013: the physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, USA, pp 659–740
Nemecek T, Schnetzer J (2011) Methods of assessment of direct field emissions for LCIs of agricultural production systems. Agroscope Reckenholz-Tänikon Research Station, Zurich, Switzerland
Nemecek T, Schnetzer J, Reinhard J (2014) Updated and harmonised greenhouse gas emissions for crop inventories. Int J Life Cycle Assess:1-18. doi:10.1007/s11367-014-0712-7
Nguyen TTH, Doreau M, Corson MS, Eugene M, Delaby L, Chesneau G, Gallard Y, Van der Werf HMG (2013) Effect of dairy production system, breed and co-product handling methods on environmental impacts at farm level. J Environ Manage 120:127–137
Niero M, Pizzol M, Bruun HG, Thomsen M (2014) Comparative life cycle assessment of wastewater treatment in Denmark including sensitivity and uncertainty analysis. J Cleaner Prod 68:25–35
O’Brien D, Brennan P, Humphreys J, Ruane E, Shalloo L (2014a) An appraisal of carbon footprint of milk from commercial grass-based dairy farms in Ireland according to a certified life cycle assessment methodology. Int J Life Cycle Assess 19(8):1469–1481. doi:10.1007/s11367-014-0755-9
O’Brien D, Capper JL, Garnsworthy PC, Grainger C, Shalloo L (2014b) A case study of the carbon footprint of milk from high-performing confinement and grass-based dairy farms. J Dairy Sci 97(3):1835–1851
OECD/FAO (2013) Dairy. In: OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2013. OECD Publishing, Rome
Parfitt RL, Stevenson BA, Dymond JR, Schipper LA, Baisden WT, Ballantine DJ (2012) Nitrogen inputs and outputs for New Zealand from 1990 to 2010 at national and regional scales. N Z J Agric Res 55(3):241–262
Pizzol M, Christensen P, Schmidt J, Thomsen M (2011) Impacts of “metals” on human health: a comparison between nine different methodologies for life cycle impact assessment (LCIA). J Cleaner Prod 19(6–7):646–656
Place SE, Mitloehner FM (2010) Invited review: contemporary environmental issues: a review of the dairy industry’s role in climate change and air quality and the potential of mitigation through improved production efficiency. J Dairy Sci 93(8):3407–3416
Pré Consultants (2013) SimaPro 8.0 Life cycle assessment software. Amersfoort, The Netherlands
Rawnsley R, Donaghy D, Stevens D (2007) What is limiting production and consumption of perennial ryegrass in temperate dairy regions of Australia and New Zealand. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 3rd Dairy Science Symposium: Meeting the Challenges for Pasture-Based Dairying. The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, pp 18–20
Reisinger A, Ledgard S (2013) Impact of greenhouse gas metrics on the quantification of agricultural emissions and farm-scale mitigation strategies: a New Zealand case study. Environ Res Lett 8(2):025019
Rosenbaum R, Bachmann T, Gold L, Huijbregts MJ, Jolliet O, Juraske R, Koehler A, Larsen H, MacLeod M, Margni M, McKone T, Payet J, Schuhmacher M, Meent D, Hauschild M (2008) USEtox—the UNEP-SETAC toxicity model: recommended characterisation factors for human toxicity and freshwater ecotoxicity in life cycle impact assessment. Int J Life Cycle Assess 13(7):532–546
Rosenbaum R, Anton A, Bengoa X, Bjørn A, Brain R, Bulle C, Cosme N, Dijkman T, Fantke P, Felix M, Geoghegan T, Gottesbüren B, Hammer C, Humbert S, Jolliet O, Juraske R, Lewis F, Maxime D, Nemecek T, Payet J, Räsänen K, Roux P, Schau E, Sourisseau S, van Zelm R, von Streit B, Wallman M (2015) The Glasgow consensus on the delineation between pesticide emission inventory and impact assessment for LCA. Int J Life Cycle Assess 20(6):765–776
Rotz CA, Soder KJ, Skinner RH, Dell CJ, Kleinman PJ, Schmidt JP, Bryant RB (2009) Grazing can reduce the environmental impact of dairy production systems. Forage and Grazinglands 7 (1):online doi:10.1094/FG-2009-0916-1001-RS. doi:10.1094/FG-2009-0916-01-RS
Rotz CA, Chianese DS, Montes F, Hafner S (2013) Dairy Gas Emissions Model: Reference Manual Version 3.0. Pasture systems and watershed management research unit, Agricultural Research Service United States Department of Agriculture
Safa M, Samarasinghe S, Mohssen M (2011) A field study of energy consumption in wheat production in Canterbury, New Zealand. Energy Convers Manage 52(7):2526–2532
Smith P, Haberl H, Popp A, K-h E, Lauk C, Harper R, Tubiello FN, de Siqueira PA, Jafari M, Sohi S, Masera O, Böttcher H, Berndes G, Bustamante M, Ahammad H, Clark H, Dong H, Elsiddig EA, Mbow C, Ravindranath NH, Rice CW, Robledo Abad C, Romanovskaya A, Sperling F, Herrero M, House JI, Rose S (2013) How much land-based greenhouse gas mitigation can be achieved without compromising food security and environmental goals? Global Change Biol 19(8):2285–2302
StatisticsNZ (2013) Agricultural Production Statistics: June 2012 (final). http://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/industry_sectors/agriculture-horticulture-forestry/AgriculturalProduction_final_HOTPJun12final.aspx.
StatisticsNZ (2014) Energy Use Survey – information releases (New Zealand Energy Use: Primary industries 2008)
Thoma G, Jolliet O, Wang Y (2013a) A biophysical approach to allocation of life cycle environmental burdens for fluid milk supply chain analysis. Int Dairy J 31 (Supplement 1):S41-S49
Thoma G, Popp J, Shonnard D, Nutter D, Matlock M, Ulrich R, Kellogg W, Kim DS, Neiderman Z, Kemper N, Adom F, East C (2013b) Regional analysis of greenhouse gas emissions from USA dairy farms: a cradle to farm-gate assessment of the American dairy industry circa 2008. Int Dairy J 31 (Supplement 1):S29-S40
Thomas S, Fraser T, Curtin D, Brown H, Lawrence E (2011) Review of nitrous oxide emission factors and activity data for crops. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Wellington
Thomassen MA, van Calker KJ, Smits MCJ, Iepema GL, de Boer IJM (2008) Life cycle assessment of conventional and organic milk production in the Netherlands. Agric Syst 96(1-3):95–107
Van linden V, Herman L (2014) A fuel consumption model for off-road use of mobile machinery in agriculture. Energy 77(0):880–889
Waghorn G What is dietary metabolisable energy? In: Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association, 2007. pp 153-159
Wales WJ, Kolver ES, Egan AR, Roche R (2009) Effects of strain of Holstein-Friesian and concentrate supplementation on the fatty acid composition of milk fat of dairy cows grazing pasture in early lactation. J Dairy Sci 92(1):247–255
Webb J, Hutchings N, Amon B, Dämmgen U, Baas J, Pain B, Chao AF, Lekkerkerk L, Runge E, Münch J, Kachniarz M, Lubera K (2013) Agriculture other including use of pesticides. EMEP/EEA Air Pollutant Emission Inventory Guidebook 2013: Technical Guidance to Prepare National Emission Inventories. Copenhagen, Denmark
Wheeler D, Ledgard S, De Klein C, Monaghan R, Carey P, McDowell R, Johns K (2003) OVERSEER® nutrient budgets—moving towards on-farm resource accounting. In: Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association, p 191-194
Yan MJ, Humphreys J, Holden NM (2013) The carbon footprint of pasture-based milk production: can white clover make a difference? J Dairy Sci 96(2):857–865
Yang Y (2013) Life cycle freshwater ecotoxicity, human health cancer, and noncancer impacts of corn ethanol and gasoline in the U.S. J Cleaner Prod 53:149–157
Acknowledgments
This paper is a part of a PhD project funded by the New Zealand Life Cycle Management Centre (NZLCM) and AgResearch. We are grateful to DairyNZ for the provision of farm survey data.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Responsible editor: Greg Thoma
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
ESM 1
(DOCX 49.2 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Chobtang, J., Ledgard, S., McLaren, S.J. et al. Appraisal of environmental profiles of pasture-based milk production: a case study of dairy farms in the Waikato region, New Zealand. Int J Life Cycle Assess 21, 311–325 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-016-1033-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-016-1033-9