Abstract
Perceptions of the future are crucial components of individual well-being. Hopelessness, which is the sense that the future is a dead end, begins with the occurrence of negative life events and develops through the perception of consistent and pervasive negative outcomes. This study investigated the role of the socioeconomic aspects of the context and shared emotions (emotional climates) within a region in reducing or exacerbating hopelessness. Emotional climates have been defined as the emotional relationships constructed among members of a society, and they describe the environmental quality of a particular community. Multilevel modeling with individuals nested into regions (i.e., Swiss cantons) was used to explore the relationship between context and hopelessness. Data from the project “Vulnerability and Growth,” the Swiss Household Panel and official socioeconomic indicators were used. Spatial-weighting methods were applied to estimate depressive and optimistic emotional climates at the canton level. The results show that hopelessness is primarily affected by individual factors such as personality and life events. However, the analyses revealed that socioeconomic conditions and the optimistic and depressive climates that prevail in cantons also affected individuals’ perceptions of hopelessness. Individuals were more likely to feel hopeless in cantons with high unemployment rates and high levels of shared negative emotions. In contrast, positive emotional climates played a protective role against hopelessness. Acknowledgment of the influence of context on individuals’ perceptions of the future and the correlation of their states of anxiety and depression is pivotal for planning effective interventions to prevent depression.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Data are available at the address http://www.bfs.admin.ch.
Indicators for psychiatric hospitalizations in Switzerland were retrieved from the Swiss Federal Office of Statistics. Because small cantons do not have psychiatric hospitals, the information can only be used at the national level. Emotional climates at the national level were computed as the average of all cantons.
References
Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Alloy, L. B. (1989). Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, 96(2), 358–372.
Adams, J. (2009). The mediating role of time perspective in socio-economic inequalities in smoking and physical activity in older English adults. Journal of Health Psychology, 14, 794–799.
Agnew, C. R., & Loving, T. J. (1998). The role of social desirability in self-reported condom use attitudes and intentions. AIDS and Behavior, 2, 229–240.
Alarcon, G. M., Bowling, N. A., & Khazon, S. (2013). Great expectations: A meta-analytic examination of optimism and hope. Personality and Individual Differences, 54(7), 821–827.
Allemand, M., Hill, P. L., Ghaemmaghami, P., & Martin, M. (2012). Forgivingness and subjective well-being in adulthood: The moderating role of future time perspective. Journal of Research in Personality, 46(1), 32–39. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2011.11.004.
Alloy, L. B., & Clements, C. M. (1998). Hopelessness theory of depression: Tests of the symptom component. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 22(4), 303–335.
Aneshensel, C. S., & Sucoff, C. A. (1996). The neighborhood context of adolescent mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 37(4), 293–310.
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2013). lme4: Linear mixed-effects models using eigen and s4. Retrieved from http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=lme4.
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., Beck, J. S., & Newman, C. F. (1993). Hopelessness, depression, suicidal ideation, and clinical diagnosis of depression. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 23(2), 139–145.
Beck, A. T., Weissman, A., Lester, D., & Trexler, L. (1974). The measurement of pessimism: The hopelessness scale. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42(6), 861–865.
Benasayag, M., & Schmit, G. (2003). Les passions tristes. Paris: La Découvert.
Carstensen, L. L., Isaacowitz, D. M., & Charles, S. T. (1999). Taking time seriously: A theory of socioemotional selectivity. American Psychologist, 54(3), 165–181.
Chapman, G. B., Brewer, N. T., Coups, E. J., Brownlee, S., Leventhal, H., & Leventhal, E. A. (2001). Value for the future and preventive health behavior. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 7, 235–250.
Chioqueta, A. P., & Stiles, T. C. (2005). Personality traits and the development of depression, hopelessness, and suicide ideation. Personality and Individual Differences, 38(6), 1283–1291.
Chochinov, H. M., Wilson, K. G., Enns, M., & Lander, S. (1998). Depression, hopelessness, and suicidal ideation in the terminally ill. Psychosomatics, 39(4), 366–370.
Cole, D. A. (1989). Psychopathology of adolescent suicide: Hopelessness, coping beliefs, and depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98(3), 248–255.
Conejero, S., & Etxebarria, I. (2007). The impact of the Madrid bombing on personal emotions, emotional atmosphere and emotional climate. Journal of Social Issues, 63(2), 273–287.
Cutrona, C. E., Wallace, G., & Wesner, K. A. (2006). Neighborhood characteristics and depression an examination of stress processes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(4), 188–192.
Dasborough, M. T. (2009). How meso-level negative emotional contagion can ultimately determine organizational attitudes toward leaders. The Leadership Quarterly, 20(4), 571–585.
De Rivera, J. (1992). Emotional climate: Social structure and emotional dynamics. International Review of Studies on Emotion, 2, 197–218.
De Rivera, J., & Páez, D. (2007). Emotional climate, human security, and cultures of peace. Journal of Social Issues, 63(2), 233–253.
Desmyter, F., & De Raedt, R. (2012). The relationship between time perspective and subjective well-being of older adults. Psychologica Belgica, 52(1), 19–38.
Dyck, M. J. (1991). Positive and negative attitudes mediating suicide ideation. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 21(4), 360–373.
Dyer, J., & Kreitman, N. (1984). Hopelessness, depression and suicidal intent in parasuicide. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 144(2), 127–133.
Elcheroth, G., Penic, S., Fasel, R., Giudici, F., Glaeser, S., Joye, D., et al. (2013). Spatially weighted context data and their application to collective war experiences. Sociological Methodology, 43(1), 364–411.
Elliott, M. (2000). The stress process in neighborhood context. Health & Place, 6(4), 287–299.
Gallagher, M. W., Lopez, S. J., & Pressman, S. D. (2013). Optimism is universal: Exploring the presence and benefits of optimism in a representative sample of the world. Journal of Personality, 81(5), 429–440.
Gonzalez, M., Jones, D. J., Kincaid, C. Y., & Cuellar, J. (2012). Neighborhood context and adjustment in African American youths from single mother homes: The intervening role of hopelessness. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18(2), 109.
Hautzinger, M., & Bailer, M. (1993). ADS: Allgemeine depressions skala. Weinheim: Beltz.
Holman, E. A., & Cohen Silver, R. (2005). Future-oriented thinking and adjustment in a nationwide longitudinal study following the September 11th terrorist attacks. Motivation and Emotion, 29(4), 389–410.
Holmes, T. H., & Rahe, R. H. (1967). The social readjustment rating scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11(2), 213–218.
Hox, J. (2002). Multilevel analysis. Techniques and approaches. Mahway, NJ: Erlbaum.
Hutchison, S., Perrig-Chiello, P., Höpflinger, F., Morselli, D., van Rhee, E., & Spini, D. (2013). Vulnerability and growth. Developmental dynamics and differential effects of the loss of an intimate partner in the second half of life. LIVES Working Papers (2013). doi:10.12682/lives.2296-1658.2013.23
Junge, T., Penic, S., Cossuta, M., & Elcheroth, G. (2013). spacom: Spatially weighted context data for multilevel modelling. Retrieved from http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=spacom.
Kashani, J. H., Suarez, L., Allan, W. D., & Reid, J. C. (1997). Hopelessness in inpatient youths: A closer look at behavior, emotional expression, and social support. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(11), 1625–1631.
Kirby, K. N., & Petry, N. M. (2004). Heroin and cocaine abusers have higher discount rates for delayed rewards than alcoholics or non-drug-using controls. Addiction, 99, 461–471.
Klebanov, P. K., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Duncan, G. J. (1994). Does neighborhood and family poverty affect mothers’ parenting, mental health, and social support? Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56(2), 441–455.
Kleiman, E. M., Adams, L. M., Kashdan, T. B., & Riskind, J. H. (2013). Grateful individuals are not suicidal: Buffering risks associated with hopelessness and depressive symptoms. Personality and Individual Differences, 55(5), 595–599.
Kosnes, L., Whelan, R., O’Donovan, A., & McHugh, L. A. (2013). Implicit measurement of positive and negative future thinking as a predictor of depressive symptoms and hopelessness. Consciousness and Cognition, 22(3), 898–912.
Kotter-Gruehn, D., & Smith, J. (2011). When time is running out: Changes in positive future perception and their relationships to changes in well-being in old age. Psychology and Aging, 26(2), 381–387.
Kovacs, M., Beck, A. T., & Weissman, A. (1975). Hopelessness: An indicator of suicidal risk. Suicide, 5(2), 98–103.
Krampen, G., & Beck, A. T. (1994). Skalen zur erfassung von hoffnungslosigkeit (h-skalen). Göttingen: Hogrefe.
Maas, C. J., & Hox, J. J. (2002). Robustness of multilevel parameter estimates against small sample sizes. Utrecht: Utrecht University.
Marsiglia, F. F., Kulis, S., Perez, H. G., & Bermudez-Parsai, M. (2011). Hopelessness, family stress, and depression among Mexican-heritage mothers in the southwest. Health and Social Work, 36(1), 7–18.
Mazza, J. J., & Reynolds, W. M. (1998). A longitudinal investigation of depression, hopelessness, social support, and major and minor life events and their relation to suicidal ideation in adolescents. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 28(4), 358–374.
Melges, F. T., & Bowlby, J. (1969). Types of hopelessness in psychopathological process. Archives of General Psychiatry, 20(6), 690–699.
Miranda, R., Tsypes, A., Gallagher, M., & Rajappa, K. (2013). Rumination and hopelessness as mediators of the relation between perceived emotion dysregulation and suicidal ideation. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 37(4), 786–795. doi:10.1007/s10608-013-9524-5.
Morselli, D. (2013). The olive tree effect: Future time perspective when the future is uncertain. Culture & Psychology, 19(3), 305–322.
Muthen, B., & Satorra, A. (1995). Complex sample data in structural equation modeling. Sociological Methodology, 25, 267–316.
Neteler, M., Bowman, M. H., Landa, M., & Metz, M. (2012). GRASS GIS: A multi-purpose open source GIS. Environmental Modelling & Software, 31, 124–130. Retrieved 2013-12-19, from http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1364815211002775.
Nummenmaa, L., Hirvonen, J., Parkkola, R., & Hietanen, J. K. (2008). Is emotional contagion special? A fMRI study on neural systems for affective and cognitive empathy. Neuroimage, 43(3), 571–580.
O’Brien, R. M. (1990). Estimating the reliability of aggregate-level variables based on individual-level characteristics. Sociological Methods & Research, 18(4), 473–504.
Páez, D., Basabe, N., Ubillos, S., & GonzálezCastro, J. L. (2007). Social sharing, participation in demonstrations, emotional climate, and coping with collective violence after the March 11th Madrid bombings. Journal of Social Issues, 63(2), 323–337.
Perez-Smith, A., Spirito, A., & Boergers, J. (2002). Neighborhood predictors of hopelessness among adolescent suicide attempters: Preliminary investigation. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 32(2), 139–145.
Perrig-Chiello, P., Hutchison, S., & Morselli, D. (2015). Patterns of psychological adaptation to divorce after a long-term marriage. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 32, 386–405.
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-d scale a self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401.
Rammstedt, B., & John, O. P. (2007). Measuring personality in one minute or less: A 10-item short version of the big five inventory in English and German. Journal of Research in Personality, 41(1), 203–212.
Revelle, W. (2013). psych: Procedures for psychological, psychometric, and personality research. Evanston, Illinois. Retrieved from http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=psych.
Reynolds, B., Richards, J. B., Horn, K., & Karraker, K. (2004). Delay discounting and probability discounting as related to cigarette smoking status in adults. Behavioural Processes, 65, 35–42.
Rimé, B. (2005). Le partage social des émotions. Paris: Presses universitaires de France.
Rimé, B. (2007). The social sharing of emotion as an interface between individual and collective processes in the construction of emotional climates. Journal of Social Issues, 63(2), 307–322.
Rimé, B., Philippot, P., Boca, S., & Mesquita, B. (1992). Long-lasting cognitive and social consequences of emotion: Social sharing and rumination. European Review of Social Psychology, 3(1), 225–258.
Ross, C. E. (2000). Neighborhood disadvantage and adult depression. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 41(2), 177–187.
Rotheram-Borus, M. J., & Trautman, P. D. (1988). Hopelessness, depression, and suicidal intent among adolescent suicide attempters. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27(6), 700–704.
Seginer, R. (2008). Future orientation in times of threat and challenge: How resilient adolescents construct their future. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 32, 272–282.
SFO. (2015). Mobility and transport. Neuchâtel: Swiss Federal Statistical Office.
Utsey, S. O., Hook, J. N., Fischer, N., & Belvet, B. (2008). Cultural orientation, ego resilience, and optimism as predictors of subjective well-being in African americans. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 3(3), 202–210.
Velting, D. M. (1999). Personality and negative expectancies: Trait structure of the beck hopelessness scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 26(5), 913–921.
Wetzel, R. D., Margulies, T., Davis, R., & Karam, E. (1980). Hopelessness, depression, and suicide intent. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 33(9), 1069–1073.
Zhang, J., & Li, Z. (2013). The association between depression and suicide when hopelessness is controlled for. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 54(7), 790–796.
Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. (1999). Putting time in perspective: A valid reliable individual-differences metric. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1271–1288.
Acknowledgments
This study is the result of research developed within the framework of the Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research LIVES, which is financed by the Swiss National Science Foundation. The author is grateful to the Principal Investigator of “Vulnerability and Growth,” Prof. Pasqualina Perrig-Chiello, and the Swiss National Science Foundation for its financial support. This study also uses the data collected by the Swiss Household Panel (SHP), which is based at the Swiss Centre of Expertise in the Social Sciences FORS. The project is financed by the Swiss National Science Foundation.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Appendices
Appendix 1: Means and Standard Deviations of the Individual-Level Variables by Canton
Canton | n | Hopelessness | Men | Age | Level of education | Unemployed | Married | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | SD | M | SD | M | SD | M | SD | M | SD | M | SD | ||
Aargau | 221 | 2.69 | 0.62 | 0.48 | 0.5 | 61.33 | 12.93 | 3.93 | 1.43 | 0.01 | 0.12 | 0.38 | 0.49 |
Appenzell Ausserrhoden | 26 | 2.52 | 0.62 | 0.46 | 0.51 | 60.12 | 12.42 | 3.73 | 1.66 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.35 | 0.49 |
Appenzell Innerrhoden | 3 | 1.93 | 0.21 | 0.33 | 0.58 | 50.33 | 13.58 | 3.67 | 1.15 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.33 | 0.58 |
Basel-Landschaft | 135 | 2.64 | 0.68 | 0.44 | 0.50 | 62.45 | 12.53 | 4.03 | 1.38 | 0.01 | 0.09 | 0.33 | 0.47 |
Basel-Stadt | 60 | 2.79 | 0.80 | 0.41 | 0.50 | 65.52 | 14.31 | 4.00 | 1.46 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.33 | 0.48 |
Bern | 463 | 2.65 | 0.66 | 0.42 | 0.49 | 62.18 | 13.52 | 3.77 | 1.46 | 0.01 | 0.10 | 0.40 | 0.49 |
Fribourg | 84 | 2.90 | 0.72 | 0.46 | 0.50 | 59.04 | 11.88 | 3.22 | 1.55 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.52 | 0.50 |
Geneva | 137 | 2.90 | 0.74 | 0.39 | 0.49 | 63.67 | 13.33 | 4.13 | 1.47 | 0.03 | 0.17 | 0.45 | 0.50 |
Glarus | 20 | 2.46 | 0.35 | 0.40 | 0.50 | 61.35 | 13.28 | 3.35 | 1.50 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.55 | 0.51 |
Graubünden | 56 | 2.77 | 0.71 | 0.41 | 0.50 | 63.34 | 12.40 | 3.71 | 1.26 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.46 | 0.50 |
Jura | 20 | 2.94 | 0.49 | 0.20 | 0.41 | 63.74 | 12.36 | 2.79 | 1.51 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.40 | 0.50 |
Lucerne | 133 | 2.59 | 0.69 | 0.44 | 0.50 | 59.07 | 12.98 | 3.79 | 1.46 | 0.04 | 0.19 | 0.39 | 0.49 |
Neuchâtel | 59 | 3.09 | 0.76 | 0.48 | 0.50 | 62.46 | 12.32 | 3.75 | 1.38 | 0.02 | 0.13 | 0.44 | 0.50 |
Nidwalden | 17 | 2.59 | 0.72 | 0.41 | 0.51 | 60.24 | 10.59 | 4.00 | 1.06 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.47 | 0.51 |
Obwalden | 15 | 2.49 | 0.61 | 0.33 | 0.49 | 59.86 | 13.23 | 3.27 | 1.67 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.27 | 0.46 |
Schaffhausen | 25 | 2.92 | 0.72 | 0.44 | 0.51 | 62.96 | 13.40 | 4.12 | 1.39 | 0.04 | 0.20 | 0.60 | 0.50 |
Schwyz | 51 | 2.72 | 0.74 | 0.38 | 0.49 | 57.63 | 13.14 | 3.33 | 1.42 | 0.02 | 0.14 | 0.41 | 0.50 |
Solothurn | 104 | 2.81 | 0.73 | 0.34 | 0.47 | 61.48 | 14.03 | 3.68 | 1.35 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.35 | 0.48 |
St. Gallen | 176 | 2.71 | 0.74 | 0.44 | 0.50 | 61.19 | 13.02 | 3.53 | 1.42 | 0.02 | 0.15 | 0.32 | 0.47 |
Thurgau | 102 | 2.72 | 0.70 | 0.48 | 0.50 | 62.15 | 14.45 | 3.70 | 1.32 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.42 | 0.50 |
Uri | 7 | 2.20 | 0.54 | 0.71 | 0.49 | 59.57 | 10.85 | 3.57 | 1.99 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.57 | 0.53 |
Valais | 80 | 2.72 | 0.65 | 0.46 | 0.50 | 61.21 | 13.54 | 3.96 | 1.33 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.52 | 0.50 |
Vaud | 278 | 2.80 | 0.66 | 0.44 | 0.50 | 62.04 | 13.40 | 3.87 | 1.46 | 0.04 | 0.20 | 0.44 | 0.50 |
Zug | 40 | 2.37 | 0.69 | 0.43 | 0.50 | 55.27 | 12.19 | 4.65 | 1.29 | 0.08 | 0.27 | 0.35 | 0.48 |
Zurich | 520 | 2.67 | 0.70 | 0.43 | 0.50 | 62.26 | 13.19 | 4.02 | 1.32 | 0.00 | 0.06 | 0.40 | 0.49 |
Canton | n | Marital break-up | Widow | Depression | Neuroticism | Extraversion | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | SD | M | SD | M | SD | M | SD | M | SD | ||
Aargau | 221 | 0.43 | 0.50 | 0.20 | 0.40 | 0.56 | 0.52 | 2.69 | 0.95 | 3.28 | 1.06 |
Appenzell Ausserrhoden | 26 | 0.46 | 0.51 | 0.19 | 0.40 | 0.69 | 0.60 | 2.42 | 1.12 | 3.20 | 1.03 |
Appenzell Innerrhoden | 3 | 0.67 | 0.58 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.16 | 0.21 | 2.50 | 0.50 | 3.17 | 1.76 |
Basel-Landschaft | 135 | 0.37 | 0.48 | 0.30 | 0.46 | 0.52 | 0.49 | 2.56 | 0.95 | 3.38 | 1.02 |
Basel-Stadt | 60 | 0.42 | 0.5 | 0.25 | 0.44 | 0.65 | 0.46 | 2.61 | 1.01 | 3.19 | 1.29 |
Bern | 463 | 0.41 | 0.49 | 0.19 | 0.39 | 0.57 | 0.50 | 2.70 | 1.02 | 3.31 | 1.11 |
Fribourg | 84 | 0.37 | 0.49 | 0.11 | 0.31 | 0.64 | 0.56 | 2.83 | 1.07 | 3.20 | 0.98 |
Geneva | 137 | 0.29 | 0.46 | 0.26 | 0.44 | 0.62 | 0.55 | 2.82 | 1.10 | 3.05 | 1.06 |
Glarus | 20 | 0.30 | 0.47 | 0.15 | 0.37 | 0.59 | 0.35 | 2.58 | 0.95 | 3.23 | 1.18 |
Graubünden | 56 | 0.32 | 0.47 | 0.21 | 0.41 | 0.59 | 0.55 | 2.87 | 0.97 | 3.42 | 1.10 |
Jura | 20 | 0.35 | 0.49 | 0.25 | 0.44 | 0.48 | 0.31 | 2.16 | 0.65 | 3.21 | 1.15 |
Lucerne | 133 | 0.44 | 0.50 | 0.17 | 0.37 | 0.60 | 0.52 | 2.63 | 1.02 | 3.56 | 1.08 |
Neuchâtel | 59 | 0.31 | 0.46 | 0.25 | 0.44 | 0.83 | 0.80 | 2.81 | 1.21 | 3.12 | 1.07 |
Nidwalden | 17 | 0.18 | 0.39 | 0.35 | 0.49 | 0.51 | 0.43 | 2.68 | 0.71 | 2.85 | 0.84 |
Obwalden | 15 | 0.40 | 0.51 | 0.33 | 0.49 | 0.55 | 0.79 | 2.57 | 1.19 | 3.57 | 0.86 |
Schaffhausen | 25 | 0.40 | 0.50 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.70 | 0.66 | 2.93 | 1.08 | 3.35 | 0.96 |
Schwyz | 51 | 0.41 | 0.50 | 0.18 | 0.39 | 0.60 | 0.54 | 2.64 | 1.09 | 3.48 | 1.20 |
Solothurn | 104 | 0.42 | 0.50 | 0.23 | 0.42 | 0.70 | 0.51 | 2.80 | 1.04 | 3.41 | 1.09 |
St. Gallen | 176 | 0.45 | 0.50 | 0.22 | 0.42 | 0.67 | 0.56 | 2.79 | 0.96 | 3.39 | 1.11 |
Thurgau | 102 | 0.34 | 0.48 | 0.24 | 0.43 | 0.61 | 0.51 | 2.73 | 0.98 | 3.53 | 1.01 |
Uri | 7 | 0.29 | 0.49 | 0.14 | 0.38 | 0.44 | 0.28 | 2.36 | 0.69 | 3.64 | 0.69 |
Valais | 80 | 0.3 | 0.46 | 0.18 | 0.38 | 0.55 | 0.50 | 2.57 | 1.04 | 3.23 | 1.02 |
Vaud | 278 | 0.35 | 0.48 | 0.22 | 0.41 | 0.55 | 0.52 | 2.54 | 1.00 | 3.12 | 1.06 |
Zug | 40 | 0.6 | 0.50 | 0.05 | 0.22 | 0.52 | 0.39 | 2.52 | 0.91 | 3.64 | 1.09 |
Zurich | 520 | 0.42 | 0.49 | 0.18 | 0.38 | 0.57 | 0.49 | 2.63 | 1.00 | 3.36 | 1.05 |
Appendix 2: Graphical Representation of the Distance Matrices
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Morselli, D. Contextual Determinants of Hopelessness: Investigating Socioeconomic Factors and Emotional Climates. Soc Indic Res 133, 373–393 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1346-x
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1346-x