Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The Menstrual Mark: Menstruation as Social Stigma

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In this theoretical paper, we argue that menstruation is a source of social stigma for women. The word stigma refers to any stain or mark that renders the individual’s body or character defective. This stigma is transmitted through powerful socialization agents in popular culture such as advertisements and educational materials. We demonstrate, in our review of the psychological literature concerning attitudes and experiences of predominantly American girls and women, that the stigmatized status of menstruation has important consequences for their health, sexuality, and well-being. We argue that the stigma of menstruation both reflects and contributes to women’s lower social status and conclude with suggestions for ways to resist the stigma.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Andrist, L. C. (2008). The implications of objectification theory for women’s health: Menstrual suppression and “maternal request” cesarean delivery. Health Care for Women International, 29, 551–565. doi:10.1080/07399330801949616.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bartky, S. L. (1990). Femininity and domination: Studies in the phenomenology of oppression. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berg, D. H., & Coutts, L. B. (1994). The extended curse: Being a woman every day. Health Care for Women International, 15, 11–22. doi:10.1080/07399339409516090.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bobel, C. (2006). Our revolution has style: Contemporary menstrual product activists “doing feminism” in the third wave. Sex Roles, 56, 331–345. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9001-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bobel, C. (2008). From convenience to hazard: A short history of the emergence of the menstrual activism movement, 1971–1992. Health Care for Women International, 29, 738–754. doi:10.1080/07399330802188909.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bobel, C. (2010). New blood: Third-wave feminism and the politics of menstruation. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boston Women’s Health Book Collective. (2005). Our bodies, ourselves: A new edition for a new era. New York: Simon & Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bramwell, R. (2001). Blood and milk: Constructions of female bodily fluids in Western society. Women & Health, 34(4), 85–96. doi:10.1300/J013v34n04_06.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buckley, T., & Gottlieb, A. (1988). Blood magic: The anthropology of menstruation. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charlesworth, D. (2001). Paradoxical constructions of self: Educating young women about menstruation. Women and Language, 24, 13–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chesler, G. (Producer & director). (2006). Period: The end of menstruation [Motion picture]. New York: Cinema Guild.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chrisler, J. C. (2002). Hormone hostages: The cultural legacy of PMS as a legal defense. In L. H. Collins, M. R. Dunlap, & J. C. Chrisler (Eds.), Charting a new course for feminist psychology (pp. 238–252). Westport: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chrisler, J. C. (2007). PMS as a culture-bound syndrome. In J. C. Chrisler, C. Golden, & P. D. Rozee (Eds.), Lectures on the psychology of women (pp. 154–171). Boston: McGraw Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chrisler, J. C. (2008). 2007 Presidential address: Fear of losing control: Power, perfectionism, and the psychology of women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 1–12. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00402.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chrisler, J. C. (2011). Leaks, lumps, and lines: Stigma and women’s bodies. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35, 202–214. doi:10.1177/0361684310397698.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chrisler, J. C., & Caplan, P. J. (2002). The strange case of Dr. Jekyll and Ms. Hyde: How PMS became a cultural phenomenon and a psychiatric disorder. Annual Review of Sex Research, 13, 274–306.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chrisler, J. C., & Levy, K. B. (1990). The media construct a menstrual monster: A content analysis of PMS articles in the popular press. Women & Health, 16, 89–104. doi:10.1300/J013v16n0207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chrisler, J. C., & Zittel, C. B. (1998). Menarche stories: Reminiscences of college students from Lithuania, Malaysia, Sudan, and The United States. Health Care for Women International, 19, 303–312. doi:10.1080/073993398246287.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chrisler, J. C., Johnston, I. K., Champagne, N. M., & Preston, K. E. (1994). Menstrual joy: The construct and its consequences. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 375–387. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1994.tb00461.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cicurel, I. E. (2000). The Rabbinate versus Israeli (Jewish) women: The Mikvah as a contested domain. Nashim: A Journal of Jewish Women’s Studies, 3, 164–190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cochrane, K. (2009, October). It’s in the blood. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/2009/oct/02/menstruation-feminist-activists.

  • Coutts, L. B., & Berg, D. H. (1993). The portrayal of the menstruating woman in menstrual product advertisements. Health Care for Women International, 14, 179–191. doi:10.1080/07399339309516039.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crocker, J., Major, B., & Steele, C. (1998). Social stigma. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 504–553). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Culpepper, E. E. (1992). Menstrual consciousness raising: A personal and pedagogical process. In A. J. Dan & L. L. Lewis (Eds.), Menstrual health in women’s lives (pp. 274–284). Chicago: University of Illinois Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, A. R., Nowygrod, S., Shabsigh, R., & Westhoff, C. (2002). The influence of vaginal bleeding on the sexual behavior of urban, Hispanic women and men. Contraception, 65, 351–355. doi:10.1016/S0010-7824(02)00279-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deaux, K., Reid, A., Mizrahi, K., & Ethier, K. A. (1995). Parameters of social identity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 280–291. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.2.280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delaney, J., Lupton, M. J., & Toth, E. (1987). The curse: A cultural history of menstruation (rev. ed.). Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diaz, A., Laufer, M., & Breech, L. (2006). Menstruation in girls and adolescents: Using the menstrual cycle as a vital sign. Pediatrics, 118(5), 2245–2250.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dovidio, J. F., Major, B., & Crocker, J. (2000). Stigma: Introduction and overview. In T. F. Heatherton, R. E. Kleck, M. R. Hebl, & J. G. Hull (Eds.), The social psychology of stigma (pp. 1–28). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erchull, M. J. (2010). Distancing through objectification? Depictions of women’s bodies in menstrual product advertisements. Sex Roles. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-0004-7.

  • Erchull, M. J., Chrisler, J. C., Gorman, J. A., & Johnston-Robledo, I. (2002). Education and advertising: A content analysis of commercially produced booklets about menstruation. Journal of Early Adolescence, 22, 455–474. doi:10.1111/1471-6402.t01-2-00007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ernster, V. L. (1975). American menstrual expressions. Sex Roles, 1, 3–13. doi:10.1007/BF00287209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fingerson, L. (2006). Girls in power: Gender, body, and menstruation in adolescence. Albany: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forbes, G. B., Adams-Curtis, L. E., White, K. B., & Holmgren, K. M. (2003). The role of hostile and benevolent sexism in women’s and men’s perceptions of the menstruating woman. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 27, 58–63. doi:10.1111/1471-6402.t01-2-00007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foucault, M. (1979). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. London: Penguin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frable, D. E. (1993). Dimensions of marginality: Distinctions among those who are different. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 370–380. doi:10.1177/0146167293194002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T.-A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. New York: Simon & Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldenberg, J. L., & Roberts, T.-A. (2004). The beast within the beauty: An existential perspective on the objectification and condemnation of women. In J. Greenberg, S. L. Koole, & T. Pyszcazynski (Eds.), Handbook of experimental existential psychology (pp. 71–85). New York: Guildford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Golub, S. (1992). Periods: From menarche to menopause. Newbury Park: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., & Solomon, S. (1986). The causes and consequences of a need for self-esteem: A terror management theory. In R. F. Baumeister (Ed.), Public and private self (pp. 189–212). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Heath, T. M. (2007). Vanessa Tiegs’ menstrual blood painting journal: Art or biohazard? Retrieved from http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/280931/vanessa_tiegs_menstrual_blood_painting.html

  • Herek, G. M. (2009). Sexual stigma and sexual prejudice in the U.S.: A conceptual framework. In D. A. Hope (Ed.), Contemporary perspectives on lesbian, gay, and bisexual identities (pp. 65–111). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hoerster, K. D., Chrisler, J. C., & Gorman, J. A. (2003). Attitudes toward and experiences with menstruation in the U.S. and India. Women & Health, 38(3), 77–95. doi:10-1300/J013v38n03_06.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Houppert, K. (1999). The curse: Confronting the last unmentionable taboo. New York: Farrar, Straus, & Giroux.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston-Robledo, I., Ball, M., Lauta, K., & Zekoll, A. (2003). To bleed or not to bleed: Young women’s attitudes toward menstrual suppression. Women & Health, 38(3), 59–75. doi:10.1300/J013v38n03_05.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston-Robledo, I., Barnack, J., & Wares, S. (2006). “Kiss your period good-bye”: Menstrual suppression in the popular press. Sex Roles, 54, 353–360. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9007-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston-Robledo, I., Sheffield, K., Voigt, J., & Wilcox-Constantine, J. (2007). Reproductive shame: Self-objectification and young women’s attitudes toward their bodies. Women & Health, 46(1), 25–39. doi:10.1300/J013v46n01_03.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kissling, E. A. (1996). Bleeding out loud: Communication about menstruation. Feminism & Psychology, 6, 481–504. doi:10.1177/0959353596064002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kissling, E. A. (2006). Capitalizing on the curse: The business of menstruation. Boulder: Rienner.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kowalski, R. M., & Chapple, T. (2000). The social stigma of menstruation: Fact or fiction? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 74–80. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2000.tb01023.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laws, S. (1990). Issues of blood: The politics of menstruation. London: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, J. (1994). Menarche and the (hetero)sexualization of the female body. Gender and Society, 8, 343–362. doi:10.1177/089124394008003004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, J., & Sasser-Coen, J. (1996). Blood stories: Menarche and the politics of the female body in contemporary U.S. society. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marván, M. L., Islas, M., Vela, L., Chrisler, J. C., & Warren, E. A. (2008). Stereotypes of women in different stages of reproductive life: Data from Mexico and the U.S. Health Care for Women International, 29, 673–687. doi:10.1080/07399330802188982.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Merskin, D. (1999). Adolescence, advertising, and the idea of menstruation. Sex Roles, 40, 941–957. doi:10.1023/A:1018881206965.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muehlenkamp, J. L., & Saris-Baglama, R. N. (2002). Self-objectification and its psychological outcomes for college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26, 371–379. doi:10.1111/1471-6402.t01-1-00076.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muscio, I. (2002). Cunt: A declaration of independence. Emeryville: Seal Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newman, A. A. (2010, March 16). Rebelling against the commonly evasive feminine care ad. New York Times, p. B3.

  • Owen, L. (1993). Her blood is gold: Celebrating the power and mystery of menstruation. San Francisco: Harper.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oxley, T. (1998). Menstrual management: An exploratory study. Feminism & Psychology, 8, 185–191.

    Google Scholar 

  • Polak, M. (2006). From the curse to the rag: Online gURLs rewrite the menstruation narrative. In Y. Jiwani, C. Steenbergen, & C. Mitchell (Eds.), Girlhood: Redefining the limits (pp. 191–207). New York: Black Rose Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raftos, M., Jackson, D., & Mannix, J. (1998). Idealised versus tainted femininity: Discourses of the menstrual experience in Australian magazines that target young women. Nursing Inquiry, 5, 174–186. doi:10.1046/j.1440-1800.1998.530174.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rempel, J. K., & Baumgartner, B. (2003). The relationship between attitudes toward menstruation and sexual attitudes, desires, and behavior in women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 32, 155–163. doi:10.1023/A:1022404609700.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rhinehart, E. D. (1989, June). Psychotherapists’ responses to the topic of menstruation in psychotherapy. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Menstrual Cycle Research, Salt Lake City, UT.

  • Roberts, T.-A. (2004). Female trouble: The Menstrual Self-evaluation Scale and women’s self-objectification. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28, 22–26. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2004.00119.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, T.-A., Goldenberg, J. L., Power, C., & Pyszczynski. (2002). “Feminine protection:” The effects of menstruation on attitudes toward women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26, 131–139. doi:10.1111/1471-6402.00051.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, J. G., Chrisler, J. C., & Couture, S. (2008). Young women’s attitudes toward continuous use of oral contraceptives: The effects of priming positive attitudes toward menstruation on women’s willingness to suppress menstruation. Health Care for Women International, 29, 688–701. doi:10.1080/07399330802188925.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rozin, P., & Fallon, A. E. (1987). A perspective on disgust. Psychological Review, 94, 23–41. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.94.1.23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schooler, D., Ward, M. L., Merriwether, A., & Caruthers, A. S. (2005). Cycles of shame: Menstrual shame, body shame, and sexual decision-making. Journal of Sex Research, 42, 324–334. doi:10.1080/00224490509552288.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stallabrass, J. (2006). Contemporary art: A very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinem, G. (1978, October). If men could menstruate: A political fantasy. Ms., p. 110.

  • Stepanich, K. K. (1992). Sister moon lodge: The power and mystery of menstruation. Woodbury: Llewellyn.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stubbs, M. L. (2008). Cultural perceptions and practices around menarche and adolescent menstruation in the United States. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 1135, 58–66. doi:10.1196/annals.1429.008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Szymanski, D. M., & Henning, S. L. (2007). The role of self-objectification in women’s depression: A test of objectification theory. Sex Roles, 56, 45–53. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9147-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tampax report, The. (1981). New York: Ruder, Finn, & Rotman.

  • Tanfer, K., & Aral, S. O. (1996). Sexual intercourse during menstruation and self-reported sexually transmitted disease history among women. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 23, 395–401.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, D. (2003). Red flower: Rethinking menstruation. Caldwell: Blackburn Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tylka, T. L., & Hill, M. S. (2004). Objectification theory as it relates to disordered eating among college women. Sex Roles, 51, 719–730. doi:10.1007/s11199-004-0721-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ussher, J. M. (2004). Premenstrual syndrome and self-policing: Ruptures in self-silencing leading to increased self-surveillance and blaming of the body. Social Theory & Health, 2, 254–272. doi:10.1057/palgrave.sth.8700032.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, L. R. (1983). Beliefs and attitudes of young girls regarding menstruation. In S. Golub (Ed.), Menarche: The transition from girl to woman (pp. 139–148). Lexington: Lexington Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wind, L. H. (1995). New moon rising: Reclaiming the sacred rites of menstruation. Chicago: Delphi Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, I. M. (2005). On female body experience: “Throwing like a girl” and other essays. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, State University of New York-Fredonia, Fredonia, NY, 14063, USA

    Ingrid Johnston-Robledo

  2. Department of Psychology, Connecticut College, New London, CT, 06320, USA

    Joan C. Chrisler

Authors
  1. Ingrid Johnston-Robledo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Joan C. Chrisler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ingrid Johnston-Robledo.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Johnston-Robledo, I., Chrisler, J.C. The Menstrual Mark: Menstruation as Social Stigma. Sex Roles 68, 9–18 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0052-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0052-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation