Abstract
Studies that model the effects of land use on commuting generally use a trip-based approach or a more aggregated individual-based approach: i.e. commuting is conceptualized in terms of modal choice, distance and time per single trip, or in terms of daily commuting distance or time. However, people try to schedule activities in a daily pattern and, thus, consider tours instead of trips. Data from the 2000 to 2001 Travel Behaviour Survey in Ghent (Belgium) illustrate that car use and commuting times significantly differ between commuting trips within work-only tours and more complex tours. Therefore, this paper considers trip-related decisions simultaneously with tour-related decisions. A multiple group structural equation model (SEM) confirmed that the relationship between land use and commuting differs between work-only tours and more complex tours. Trips should be considered within tours in order to correctly understand the effect of land use scenarios such as densifying on commuting. Moreover, the use of multiple group SEM enabled us to address the issue of the complex nature of commuting. Due to interactions between various explanatory variables, land use patterns do not always have the presumed effect on commuting. Land use policy can successfully influence commuting, but only if it simultaneously accounts for the effects on car availability, car use, commuting distance and commuting time.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Badoe, D.A., Miller, E.J.: Transportation––land-use interaction: empirical findings in North America, and their implications for modelling. Transp. Res. D 5, 235–263 (2000)
Bagley, M.N., Mokhtarian, P.L.: The impact of residential neighborhood type on travel behavior: a structural equation modeling approach. Ann. Reg. Sci. 36, 279–297 (2002)
Bhat, C.R.: Work travel mode choice and number of non-work commute stops. Transp. Res. B 31, 41–54 (1997)
Bhat, C.R., Gossen, R.: A mixed multinomial logit model analysis of weekend recreational episode type choice. Transp. Res. B 38, 767–787 (2004)
Bhat, C.R., Guo, J.Y.: A comprehensive analysis of built environment characteristics on household residential choice and auto ownership levels. Transp. Res. B 41, 506–526 (2007)
Bhat, C.R., Koppelman, F.S.: Activity-based modeling of travel demand. In: Hall, R.W. (ed.) Handbook of Transportation Science, pp. 39–65. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell (1999)
Boarnet, M., Sarmiento, S.: Can land use policy really affect travel behavior ? A study of the link between non-work travel and land use characteristics. Urban Stud. 35, 1155–1169 (1998)
Buliung, R.N., Kanaroglou, P.S.: Urban form and household activity-travel behavior. Growth Chang. 37, 172–199 (2006)
Byrne, B.M.: Structural Equation Modeling with AMOS Basic Concepts Applications and Programming. Lawrence Erlbaum Associated, Mahwah (2001)
Cao, X.Y., Handy, S.L., Mokhtarian, P.L.: The influences of the built environment and residential self-selection on pedestrian behaviour: evidence from Austin, TX. Transportation 33, 1–20 (2006)
Cao, X.Y., Mokhtarian, P.L., Handy, S.L.: Do changes in neighborhood characteristics lead to changes in travel behavior ? A structural equations modeling approach. Transportation 34, 535–556 (2007)
Cao, X.Y., Mokhtarian, P.L., Handy, S.L.: Differentiating the influence of accessibility, attitudes, and demographics on stop participation and frequency during the evening commute. Environ. Plan. B 35, 431–442 (2008)
Cervero, R.: Mixed land-uses and commuting: evidence from the American housing survey. Transp. Res. A 30, 361–377 (1996)
Cervero, R., Kockelman, K.: Travel demand and the 3D’s: density, diversity and design. Transp. Res. D 2, 199–219 (1997)
Cervero, R., Seskin, S.: An Evaluation of the Relationships Between Transit and Urban Form, National Research Council. Transportation Cooperative Research Program, Washington, DC (1995)
Chatman, D.: How density and mixed uses at the workplace affect personal commercial travel and commute mode choice. Transp. Res. Rec. 1831, 193–201 (2003)
Chen, C., Gong, H., Paaswell, R.: Role of the built environment on mode choice decisions: additional evidence on the impact of density. Transportation 35, 285–299 (2008)
Crane, R.: The influence of urban form on travel: an interpretive review. J. Plan. Lit. 15, 3–23 (2000)
de Abreu e Silva, J., Goulias, K.G.: A structural equations model of land use patterns, location choice, and travel behavior in Seattle and comparison with Lisbon. In: Paper presented at the 88th Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting, Washington, DC (2009)
de Abreu e Silva, J., Golob, T.F., Goulias, K.G.: Effects of land use characteristics on residence and employment location and travel behaviour of urban adult workers. Transp. Res. Rec. 1977, 121–131 (2006)
Dieleman, F.M., Dijst, M., Burghouwt, G.: Urban form and travel behaviour: micro-level household attributes and residential context. Urban Stud. 39, 507–527 (2002)
Ewing, R., Cervero, R.: Travel and the built environment: a synthesis. Transp. Res. Rec. 1780, 87–114 (2001)
Ewing, R., Haliyur, P., Page, G.W.: Getting around a traditional city, a suburban planned unit development, and everything in between. Transp. Res. Rec. 1466, 53–62 (1994)
Frank, L.D., Pivo, G.: Impacts of mixed use and density on utilization of three modes of travel: single-occupant vehicle, transit and walking. Transp. Res. Rec. 1466, 44–52 (1994)
Frank, L., Bradley, M., Kavage, S., Chapman, J., Lawton, K.: Urban form, travel time, and cost relationships with tour complexity and mode choice. Transportation 35, 37–54 (2008)
Gao, S., Mokhtarian, P.L., Johnston, R.A.: Exploring the connections among job accessibility, employment, income, and auto ownership using structural equation modeling. Ann. Reg. Sci. 42, 341–356 (2008)
Geurs, K.T., van Wee, B.: Accessibility evaluation of land-use and transport strategies: review and research directions. J. Transp. Geogr. 12, 127–140 (2004)
Giuliano, G., Dargay, J.: Car ownership, travel and land use: a comparison of the US and Great Britain. Transp. Res. A 40, 106–124 (2006)
Glorieux, I., Minnen, J., van Tienoven, T.P.: Tijdsbesteding in België. Veranderingen in Tijdsbesteding tussen 1999 en 2005. (Time-Use in Belgium. Changes in Time Use Between 1999 and 2005). Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Vakgroep Sociologie, Onderzoeksgroep TOR, Brussel (2008)
Greenwald, M.J.: The road less travelled––New urbanist inducements to travel mode substitution for nonwork trips. J. Plan Educ. Res. 23, 39–57 (2003)
Guo, J.Y., Elhat, C.R., Copperman, R.B.: Effects of the built environment on motorized and nonmotorized trip making––subjective, complementary, or synergistic ? Transp. Res. Rec. 2010, 172–199 (2007)
Handy, S.: How Land Use Patterns Affect Travel Patterns. Council of Planning Librarians, Chicago (1992)
Handy, S.: Methodologies for exploring the link between urban form and travel behavior. Transp. Res. D 1, 151–165 (1996)
Handy, S.: Smarth growth and the transportation––land use connection: what does the research tell us ? Int. Reg. Sci. Rev. 28, 146–167 (2005)
Hanson, S.: The context of urban travel: concepts and recent trends. In: Hanson, S., Guiliano, G. (eds.) The Geography of Urban Transportation, pp. 1–29. The Guildford Press, New York (2004)
Hayduk, L.A.: Structural Equation Modeling with LISREL. Essentials and Advances. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore (1987)
Hensher, D.A., Reves, A.J.: Trip chaining as a barrier to the propensity to use public transport. Transportation 27, 341–361 (2000)
Hu, L., Bentler, P.M.: Cutoff criteria for fit indices in covariance structure analysis. Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct. Equ. Model 6, 1–55 (1999)
Jones, P.M., Koppelman, F.S., Orfeuil, J.P.: Activity analysis: state of the art and future directions. In: Jones, P. (ed.) Developments in Dynamic and Activity-Based Approaches to Travel Analysis, pp. 34–55. Gower, Aldershot (1990)
Kitamura, R., Mokhtarian, P.L., Laidet, L.: A micro-analysis of land use and travel in five neighbourhoods in the San Francisco Bay Area. Transportation 24, 125–158 (1997)
Kline, R.B.: Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling. Guilford Pres, New York (2005)
Krizek, K.: Neighborhood services, trip purpose, and tour-based travel. Transportation 30, 387–410 (2003)
Limanond, T., Niemeier, D.A.: Effect of land use on decisions of shopping tour generation: a case study of three traditional neighbourhoods in WA. Transportation 31, 153–181 (2004)
Maat, K., Timmermans, H.: Influence of land use on tour complexity––a Dutch case. Transp. Res. Rec. 1977, 234–241 (2006)
Maat, K., van Wee, B., Stead, D.: Land use and travel behaviour: expected effects from the perspective of utility theory and activity-based theories. Environ. Plan. B 32, 33–46 (2005)
McNally, M.G.: The activity-based approach. In: Hensher, D.A., Button, K.J. (eds.) Handbook of Transport Modeling, pp. 53–69. Pergamon, Oxford (2000)
Mérenne, B., Van der Haegen, H., Van Hecke, E.: België ruimtelijk doorgelicht (Belgium: spatially investigated). Tijdschr van het Gem 51, 1–144 (1997)
Meurs, H., Haaijer, R.: Spatial structure and mobility. Transp. Res. D 6, 429–446 (2001)
Miller, E.J., Ibrahim, A.: Urban forms and vehicular travel: some empirical findings. Transp. Res. Rec. 1617, 18–27 (1998)
Muthén, B., Kaplan, D.: A comparison of some methodologies for the factor analysis of non-normal Likert variables. Br. J. Math. Stat. Psychol. 38, 171–189 (1985)
Muthén, B., Kaplan, D.: A comparison of some methodologies for the factor analysis of non-normal Likert variables: a note on the size of the model. Br. J. Math. Stat. Psychol. 45, 19–30 (1992)
Muthén, L.K., Muthén, B.O.: Mplus User’s Guide, 4th edn. Muthén & Muthén, Los Angeles (2006)
N.N.: Ontwerp Mobiliteitsplan Vlaanderen (A First Draft of the Mobility Plan Flanders). Ministerie van de Vlaamse Overheid, Brussel (2001)
Noland, R.B., Thomas, J.V.: Multivariate analysis of trip-chaining behavior. Environ. Plan. B 34, 953–970 (2007)
Oud, J.H.L., Folmer, H.: A structural equation approach to models with spatial dependence. Geogr. Anal. 40, 152–166 (2008)
Peng, Z.R.: The jobs-housing balance and urban commuting. Urban Stud. 34, 1215–1235 (1997)
Pinjari, A.R., Pendyala, R., Bhat, C.R., Waddell, P.A.: Modeling residential sorting effects to understand the impacts of the built environment on commute mode choice. Transportation 34, 557–573 (2007)
Potoglou, D., Kanarolgou, P.S.: Modelling car ownership in urban areas: a case study of Hamilton, Canada. J. Transp. Geogr. 16, 42–54 (2008)
Primerano, F., Taylor, M.A.P., Pitaksringkarn, L., Tisato, P.: Defining and understanding trip chaining behaviour. Transportation 35, 55–72 (2008)
Rajamani, J., Bhat, C.R., Handy, S., Knaap, G., Song, Y.: Assessing impact of urban form measures on nonwork trip mode choice after controlling for demographic and level-of-service effects. Transp. Res. Rec. 1831, 158–165 (2003)
Raykov, T., Marcoulides, G.A.: A First Course in Structural Equation Modeling. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, New Jersey (2000)
Salomon, I., Ben-Akiva, M.: The use of the life-style concept in travel demand models. Environ. Plan. A 15, 623–638 (1983)
Schimek, P.: Household motor vehicle ownership and use: how much does residential density matter? Transp. Res. Rec. 1552, 120–125 (1996)
Schwanen, T.: Urban form and: a cross-European perspective. Tijdschr voor Econ en Soc Geogr 93, 336–343 (2002)
Schwanen, T., Dijst, M., Dieleman, F.M.: A microlevel analysis of residential context and travel time. Environ. Plan. A 34, 1487–1507 (2002)
Schwanen, T., Dijst, M., Dieleman, F.M.: Policies for urban form and their impact on travel: the Netherlands experience. Urban Stud. 41, 579–603 (2004a)
Schwanen, T., Dieleman, F.M., Dijst, M.: The impact of metropolitan structure on commute behavior in the Netherlands: a multilevel approach. Growth Chang. 35, 304–333 (2004b)
Shen, Q.: Spatial and social dimensions of commuting. J. Am. Plan. Assoc. 66, 68–82 (2000)
Shiftan, Y., Barlach, Y.: Effect of employment site characteristics on commute mode choice. Transp. Res. Rec. 1781, 19–25 (2002)
Simma, A., Axhausen, K.W.: Interactions between travel behaviour, accessibility and personal characteristics: the case of Upper Austria. Eur. J. Transp. Infrastruct. Res. 3, 179–197 (2003)
Soltani, A.: Exploring the impacts of built environments on vehicle ownership. In: Satoh, K. (ed.) Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, pp. 2151–2163 (2005)
Srinivasan, S.: Quantifying spatial characteristics of cities. Urban Stud. 39, 2005–2028 (2002)
Stead, D., Marshall, S.: The relationships between urban form and travel patterns. An international review and evaluation. Eur. J. Transp. Infrastruct. Res. 1, 113–141 (2001)
Strathman, J.G., Dueker, K.J., Davis, J.S.: Effects of household structure and selected travel characteristics on trip chaining. Transportation 21, 23–45 (1994)
Susilo, Y.O., Maat, K.: The influence of built environment to the trends in commuting journeys in the Netherlands. Transportation 34, 589–609 (2007)
Van Acker, V., Witlox, F.: Car ownership as a mediating variable in car travel behaviour research using a structural equation modelling approach to identify its dual relationship. J. Transp. Geogr. 18, 65–74 (2010)
Van Acker, V., Witlox, F., van Wee, B.: The effects of the land use system on travel behaviour: a structural equation modelling approach. Transp. Plan. Techol. 30, 331–354 (2007)
Van Acker, V., van Wee, B., Witlox, F.: When transport geography meets social psychology: toward a conceptual model of travel behaviour. Transp. Rev. 30, 219–240 (2010)
van Wee, B.: Land use and transport: research and policy challenges. J. Transp. Geogr. 10, 259–271 (2002)
Vande Walle, S., Steenberghen, T.: Space and time related determinants of public transport use in trip chains. Transp. Res. 40, 151–162 (2006)
Verhetsel, A., Thomas, I., Van Hecke, E., Beelen, M.: Pendel in België. Deel I: De Woon-Werkverplaatsingen. (Commuting in Belgium. Par I: Commuting trips). FOD Economie. K.M.O, Middenstand en Energie, Brussel (2007)
Witlox, F.: Evaluating the reliability of reported distance data in urban travel behaviour analysis. J. Transp. Geogr. 15, 172–183 (2007)
Ye, X., Pendyala, R.M., Gottardi, G.: An exploration of the relationship between mode choice and complexity of trip chaining patterns. Transp. Res. B 41, 96–113 (2007)
Yu, C.-Y.: Evaluating cutoff criteria of model fit indices for latent variable models with binary and continuous outcomes. PhD dissertation, Graduate School of Education and Information Studies, University of California, Los Angeles, CA (1999)
Zwerts, E., Nuyts, E.: Onderzoek Verplaatsingsgedrag Stadsgewest Gent (januari 2000–januari 2001). Deel 3A: Analyse Personen Vragenlijst (Travel Behaviour Survey Ghent Urban Region (January 2000–January 2001). Part 3A: Analysis Personal Questionnaire). Provinciale Hogeschool Limburg, Hasselt (2001)
Acknowledgement
We would like to acknowledge the input made by Patricia Mokhtarian (UC, Davis) on an earlier version of this paper. We would like also to thank the three anonymous reviewers of this paper for their valuable comments.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Van Acker, V., Witlox, F. Commuting trips within tours: how is commuting related to land use?. Transportation 38, 465–486 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-010-9309-6
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-010-9309-6