Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

East Africa and Madagascar in the Indian Ocean world

  • Published:
Journal of World Prehistory Aims and scope

Abstract

The Indian Ocean has long been a forum for contact, trade and the transfer of goods, technologies and ideas between geographically distant groups of people. Another, less studied, outcome of expanding maritime connectivity in the region is the translocation of a range of species of plants and animals, both domestic and wild. A significant number of these translocations can now be seen to involve Africa, either providing or receiving species, suggesting that Africa’s role in the emergence of an increasingly connected Indian Ocean world deserves more systematic consideration. While the earliest international contacts with the East African coast remain poorly understood, in part due to a paucity of archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological studies, some evidence for early African coastal activity is provided by the discovery of early hunter-gatherer sites on offshore islands, and, possibly, by the translocation of wild animals among these islands, and between them and the mainland. From the seventh century, however, clear evidence for participation in the Indian Ocean world emerges, in the form of a range of introduced species, including commensal and domestic animals, and agricultural crops. New genetic studies demonstrate that the flow of species to the coast is complex, with more than one source frequently indicated. The East African coast and Madagascar appear to have been significant centres of genetic admixture, drawing upon Southeast Asian, South Asian and Middle Eastern genetic varieties, and sometimes yielding unique hybrid species. The biological patterns reflect a deeply networked trade and contact situation, and support East Africa’s key role in the events and transformations of the early Indian Ocean world.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abungu, G. H. O. (1989). Communities on the River Tana: An archaeological study of relations between the delta and the river basin, 700–1800 AD. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge.

  • Abungu, G. O., & Mutoro, H. W. (1993). Coast-interior settlements and social relations in the Kenya coastal hinterland. In T. Shaw, P. Sinclair, B. Andah, & A. Okpoko (Eds.), The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns (pp. 694–704). London: Routledge.

  • Adamowicz, L. (1990). Newly discovered Stone Age cultures in Nampula province, Northern Mozambique. In P. Sinclair & G. Pwiti (Eds.), Urban origins in eastern Africa: Project proposals and workshop summaries (pp. 137–197). Sweden paper no. 6, The Swedish Central Board of National Antiquities: Stockholm.

  • Adebambo, A. O., Mobegi, V. A., Mwacharo, J. M., Oladejo, B. M., Adewale, R. A., Ilori, L. O., et al. (2010). Lack of phylogeographic structure in Nigerian village chickens revealed by mitochondrial DNA d-loop sequence analysis. International Journal of Poultry Sciences, 9, 503–507.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adelaar, A. (2009). Towards an integrated theory about the Indonesian migrations to Madagascar. In P. N. Peregrine, I. Peiros, & M. Feldman (Eds.), Ancient human migrations: A multidisciplinary approach (pp. 149–172). Salt Lake City, UT: University of Utah.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahmadi, N., Glaszmann, J. C., & Rabary, E. (1991). Traditional highland rices originating from intersubspecific recombination in Madagascar. In Rice genetics II: Proceedings of the second international rice genetics symposium 14–18 May 1990 (pp. 67–79). IRRI Press, Manila.

  • Ali, J., & Huber, M. (2010). Mammalian biodiversity on Madagascar controlled by ocean currents. Nature, 463, 563–566.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, J. de V. (1993). Swahili origins: Swahili culture and the Shungwaya phenomenon. London: James Currey.

  • Allibert, C. (1989). Early settlement on the Comoro Archipelago. National Geographic Reports, 5, 392–393.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allibert, C. (2008). Austronesian migration and the establishment of the Malagasy civilization: Contrasted readings in linguistics, archaeology, genetics and cultural anthropology. Diogenes, 218, 7–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allibert, C., Argant, A., & Argant, J. (1989). Le site de Dembeni (Mayotte, archipel des Comores), mission 1984. Etudes Océan Indien, 11, 63–172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allibert, C., & Vérin, P. (1996). The early pre-Islamic history of the Comores Islands: Links with Madagascar and Africa. In J. Reade (Ed.), The Indian Ocean in antiquity (pp. 417–438). London: Kegan Paul.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alpers, E. A. (1975). Ivory and slaves: Changing pattern of international trade in East Central Africa to the nineteenth century. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alpers, E. A. (2007). Littoral society in Mozambique. In H. P. Ray & E. A. Alpert (Eds.), Cross currents and community networks: The history of the Indian Ocean World (pp. 123–141). Delhi: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ambrose, S.H., Collett, D., Mudida, & Marshall, F. (1984). Excavations at Deloraine, Rongai, 1978. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 19, 79–104.

  • Andaya, L. Y. (2008). Leaves of the same tree: Trade and ethnicity in the straits of Melaka. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aplin, K. P., Suzuki, H., Chinen, A. A., Chesser, R. T., ten Have, J., Donnellan, S. C., et al. (2011). Multiple geographic origins of commensalism and complex dispersal history of black rats. PLoS ONE, 6(11), e26357. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0026357.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armitage, P. L. (1994). Unwelcome companions: Ancient rats reviewed. Antiquity, 68, 231–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armitage, P. L., West, B., & Steedman, K. (1984). New evidence of black rat in Roman London. The London Archaeologist, 4, 375–383.

    Google Scholar 

  • Asouti, E., & Fuller, D. Q. (2008). Trees and woodlands of South India: Archaeological perspectives. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Austin, C. C. (1999). Lizards took express train to Polynesia. Nature, 397, 113–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ba, F. S., Pasquet, R. S., & Gepts, P. (2004). Genetic diversity in cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] as revealed by RAPD markers. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 51, 539–550.

    Google Scholar 

  • Badenhorst, S., Sinclair, P., Ekblom, A., & Plug, I. (2011). Faunal remains from Chibuene, an Iron Age coastal trading station in central Mozambique. Southern African Humanities, 23(1), 1–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barker, G. (1978). Economic models for the Manekweni Zimbabwe, Mozambique. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 13, 71–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baum, D. A. (1995). A systematic revision of Adansonia (Bombaceae). Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 82(3), 440–470.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baum, D. A., Smith, S. D., Yen, A., Alverson, W. S., Nyffeler, R., Whitlock, B. A., et al. (2004). Phylogenetic relationships of Malvatheca (Bombacoideae and Malvoideae; Malvaceae sensu lato) as inferred from plastid DNA sequences. American Journal of Botany, 91, 1863–1871.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baverstock, P. R., Adams, M., Maxston, L. R., & Yoshida, P. H. (1983). Genetic differentiation among karyotypic forms of the black rat, Rattus rattus. Genetics, 105, 969–983.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beaujard, P. (1998). Dictionnaire Malagache–Français. Paris: L’Harmattan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beaujard, P. (2011). The first migrants to Madagascar and their introduction of plants: Linguistic and ethnological evidence. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 46, 169–189.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benedict, M. Q., Levine, R. S., Hawley, W. A., & Lounibos, L. P. (2007). Spread of the tiger: Global risk of invasion by the mosquito Aedes albopictus. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases, 7(1), 76–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blench, R. (1996). The ethnographic evidence for long-distance contacts between Oceania and East Africa. In J. Reade (Ed.), The Indian Ocean in antiquity (pp. 417–438). London: Kegan Paul.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blench, R. (1997). A history of agriculture in northeastern Nigeria. In D. Barreteau, R. Dognin, & C. von Graffenried (Eds.), L’Homme et le milieu végétal dans le Bassin du Lac Tchad (pp. 69–112). Paris: ORSTOM.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blench, R. (2006). Archaeology, language, and the African past. Lanham: Altamira.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blench, R. (2007a). New palaeozoogeographical evidence for the settlement of Madagascar. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 42, 71–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blench, R. (2007b). The intertwined history of the silk-cotton and baobab in West Africa. In R. T. J. Cappers (Ed.), Fields of change: Progress in African archaeobotany (pp. 1–20). Groningen: Barkhuis and Groningen University.

  • Blench, R. (2008). The Austronesians in Madagascar and their interaction with the Bantu of the East African coast: Surveying the linguistic evidence for domestic and translocated animals. Studies in Philippine Languages and Cultures, 18, 18–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blench, R. (2009). Bananas and plantains in Africa: Re-interpreting the linguistic evidence. Ethnobotanical Research and Applications, 7, 363–380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boessneck, J. (1976). Tell el-Dab’a III: Die Tierknochenfunde 1966–1969. Cairo: Akademie der Wissenschaft.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boivin, N., Blench, R., & Fuller, D. (2009). Archaeological, linguistic and historical sources on ancient seafaring: A multidisciplinary approach to the study of early maritime contact and exchange in the Arabian Peninsula. In M. Petraglia & J. Rose (Eds.), The evolution of human populations in Arabia (pp. 251–278). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boivin, N., & Fuller, D. Q. (2009). Shell middens, ships and seeds: Exploring coastal subsistence, maritime trade and the dispersal of domesticates in and around the ancient Arabian Peninsula. Journal of World Prehistory, 22, 113–180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boivin, N., Fuller, D. Q., & Crowther, A. (2012). Old world globalization and the Columbian exchange: Comparison and contrast. Antiquity, 44(3), 452–469.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boursot, P., Din, W., Anand, R., Darviche, D., Dod, B., Von Deimling, F., et al. (1996). Origin and radiation of the house mouse: Mitochondrial DNA phylogeny. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 9, 391–415.

    Google Scholar 

  • Breen, C., & Lane, P. (2003). Archaeological approaches to East Africa’s changing seascapes. World Archaeology, 35(3), 469–489.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brunken, J., De Wet, J. M. J., & Harlan, J. R. (1977). The morphology and domestication of pearl millet. Economic Botany, 31, 163–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burney, D. A., Burney, L. P., Godfrey, L. R., Jungers, W. L., Goodman, S. M., Wright, H. T., et al. (2004). A chronology for late prehistoric Madagascar. Journal of Human Evolution, 47, 25–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burney, D. A., James, H. F., Grady, F. V., Rafamantanantsoa, J. G., Wright, H. T., Ramilisonina, et al. (1997). Environmental change, extinction and human activity: Evidence from caves in NW Madagascar. Journal of Biogeography, 24, 755–767.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burney, D. A., Robinson, G. S., & Burney, L. P. (2003). Sporormiella and the late Holocene extinctions in Madagascar. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100(19), 10800–10805.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burney, D. A., Vasey, N., Godfrey, L. R., Ramilisonina, Jungers, W. L., Ramarolahy, M., et al. (2008). New findings at Andrahomana Cave, southeastern Madagascar. Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, 70(1), 13–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, G. (Ed.). (2004). The structure of slavery in Indian Ocean, Africa and Asia. Frank Cass, London.

  • Cappers, R. (2006). Roman food prints at Berenike: Archaeobotanical evidence of subsistence and trade in the Eastern Desert of Egypt. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology.

  • Capredon, M., Sanchez-Mazas, A., Guitard, E., Razafindrazaka, H., Chiaroni, J., Champion, B., et al. (2011). The Arabo-Islamic migrations in Madagascar: First genetic study of the GM system in three Malagasy populations. International Journal of Immunogenetics, 39(2), 161–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Casson, L. (1980). Rome’s trade with the East: The sea voyage to Africa and India. Transactions of the American Philological Association, 110, 21–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Casson, L. (1989). The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text with introduction, translation and commentary. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castillo, C., & Fuller, D. Q. (2010). Still too fragmentary and dependent upon chance? Advances in the study of early Southeast Asian archaeobotany. In Bellina, B., Bacus, E. A., Pryce, O., & Weissman Christie, J. (Eds.), Fifty years of archaeology in Southeast Asia: Essays in honour of Ian Glover (pp. 91–111). Bangkok/London: River Books.

  • Chami, F. A. (1994–1995). The first millennium AD on the East Coast: A new look at the cultural sequence and interactions. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 29–30, 227–237.

  • Chami, F. (1994). The Tanzanian coast in the first millennium AD: An archaeology of the iron-working, farming communities, Studies in African Archaeology 7. Uppsala: Societas Archaeologica Upsaliensis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chami, F. (1996). The excavation of Kiwangwa late Stone Age site. In G. Pwiti & R. Soper (Eds.), Aspects of African archaeology (pp. 307–316). Harare: University of Zimbabwe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chami, F. (1999). The early iron age on Mafia and its relationship with the mainland. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 34, 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chami, F. (2001a). The archaeology of the Rufiji region 1987–2000: Coast and interior dynamics from AD 0–500. In F. Chami, P. Pwiti, & C. Radimilahy (Eds.), People, contacts and the environment in the African past, Studies in the African Past 1 (pp. 7–20). Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chami, F. (2001b). Chicken bones from a Neolithic limestone cave site, Zanzibar: Contact between East Africa and Asia. In F. Chami, P. Pwiti, & C. Radimilahy (Eds.), People, contacts and the environment in the African past, Studies in the African Past 1 (pp. 81–97). Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chami, F. (2001c). A response to Christopher Ehret’s ‘Bantu expansions’. The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 34(3), 647–651.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chami, F. (2002). The excavation of Kaole ruins. In F. Chami & G. Pwiti (Eds.), Southern Africa and the Swahili world (pp. 25–49). Dar es Salaam: University of Dar es Salaam Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chami, F. (2004). The archaeology of the Mafia archipelago, Tanzania. In F. Chami, G. Pwiti, & C. Radimilahy (Eds.), African Archaeology networks: Reports and views, Studies in the African Past 4 (pp. 73–101). Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chami, F. (2006a). The unity of ancient African history 3000 BC to AD 500. Mauritius: E&D Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chami, F. (2006b). The archaeology of the pre-Islamic Kilwa Kisiwani (island). In F. Chami, G. Pwiti, & C. Radimilahy (Eds.), African archaeology networks: Reports and a review, Studies in the African Past 5 (pp. 119–150). Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chami, F. (2007). Diffusion in the studies of the African past: Reflections from new archaeological findings. African Archaeological Review, 24, 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chami, F. (2011). Archaeological research in Comores between 2007 and 2009. In C. Radimilahy & N. Rajaonarimanana (Eds.), Civilisations des mondes insulaires: Madagascar, îles du canal de Mozambique, Mascareignes, Polynésie, Guyanes (pp. 811–823). Paris: Karthala.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chami, F., & Chami, R. (2001). Narosura pottery from the southern coast of Tanzania: First incontrovertible coastal late Stone Age pottery. Nyame Akuma, 56, 29–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chami, F., & Kessy, E. T. (1995). Archaeological work at Kisiju, Tanzania 1994. Nyame Akuma, 43, 38–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chami, F., & Kwekason, A. (2003). Neolithic pottery traditions from the islands, the coasts and the interior of East Africa. African Archaeology Review, 20(2), 65–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chami, F., & Mapunda, B. (1998). The 1996 archaeological reconnaissance north of the Rufiji delta. Nyame Akuma, 49, 62–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chami, F., & Msemwa, P. (1997a). A new look at culture and trade on the Azania coast. Current Anthropology, 38(4), 673–677.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chami, F., & Msemwa, P. (1997b). The excavation at Kwale Island, south of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Nyame Akuma, 48, 45–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chaudhuri, K. N. (1985). Trade and civilisation in the Indian Ocean. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheke, A. (2010). The timing of arrival of humans and their commensal animals on Western Indian Ocean oceanic islands. Phelsuma, 18, 38–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheke, A. (2011). Was the flying-fox Pteropus comorensis on Mafia Island (Tanzania) introduced by humans? Journal of East African Natural History, 100, 59–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cherian, P. J., Prasad, G. V. R., Dutta, K., Ray, D. K., Selvakumar, V., & Shajan, K. P. (2009). Chronology of Pattanam: A multi-cultural port site on the Malabar coast. Current Science, 97(2), 236–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chittick, H. N. (1969). An archaeological reconnaissance of the southern Somali coast. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 4, 115–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chittick, H. N. (1974). Kilwa: An Islamic trading city on the East African coast, history and archaeology (Vol. I). Nairobi: British Institute in Eastern Africa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chittick, H. N. (1975). The peopling of the East African coast. In H. N. Chittick & I. Rotberg (Eds.), East Africa and the Orient: Cultural synthesis in pre-colonial times (pp. 16–43). London, New York: Africana.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chittick, H. N. (1976). An archaeological reconnaissance in the Horn: The British Somali expedition 1975. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 11, 117–133.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chittick, H. N. (1979). Early ports in the Horn of Africa. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 8(4), 273–277.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chittick, H. N. (1984). Manda: Excavations at an island port on the Kenya coast. Nairobi: British Institute in Eastern Africa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christensen, C. C., & Weisler, M. I. (2013). Land snails from archaeological sites in the Marshall Islands, with remarks on prehistoric translocations in tropical Oceania. Pacific Science, 67(1), 81–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock, J. (1993). The spread of domestic animals in Africa. In T. Shaw, P. J. Sinclair, B. Andah, & A. Okpoko (Eds.), The archaeology of Africa: Food, metals and towns (pp. 61–70). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cotorti, M., & Mussi, M. (1987). Late Stone Age hunter-gatherers of the Juba Valley, southern Somalia. Nyame Akuma, 28, 32–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coupaye, L. (2009). Ways of Enchanting: Chaînes Opératoires and Yam Cultivation in Nyamikum Village, Maprik, Papua New Guinea. Journal of Material Culture, 14, 433–458.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox, M. P., Nelson, M. G., Tumonggor, M. K., Ricaut, F.-X., & Sudoyo, H. (2012). A small cohort of Island Southeast Asian women founded Madagascar. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 279, 2761–2768.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cucchi, T., Vigne, J.-D., & Auffray, J.-C. (2005). First occurrence of the house mouse (Mus musculus domesticus Schwarz and Schwarz 1943) in the Western Mediterranean: A zooarchaeological revision of subfossil occurrences. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 84, 429–445.

    Google Scholar 

  • D’Andrea, A. C. (2008). T’ef (Eragrostis tef) in ancient agricultural systems of highland Ethiopia. Economic Botany, 62, 547–566.

    Google Scholar 

  • D’Andrea, A. C., Kahlheber, S., Logan, A. L., & Watson, D. J. (2007). Early domesticated cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) from Central Ghana. Antiquity, 81, 686–698.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dahl, O. C. (1951). Malgache et Maanyan: Une comparaison linguistique. Egede Institutett: Oslo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dahl, O. (1991). Migration from Kalimantan to Madagascar. Oslo: Norwegian University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darby, W. J., Ghaliongui, P., & Grivetti, L. (1977). Food: The gift of Osiris 1. London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Datoo, B. (1971). East African ports. In S. Ominde (Ed.), Studies in East African geography and development: Essays presented to S. J. K. Baker (pp. 63–72). London: Heinemann Educational.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Kochko, A. (1987). Isozymic variability of traditional rice (Oryza sativa L.) in Africa. Theoretical and Applied Genetics, 73, 675–682.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Langhe, E. (2007). The establishment of traditional plantain cultivation in the African rain forest: A working hypothesis. In T. P. Denham, J. Iriarte, & L. Vrydaghs (Eds.), Rethinking agriculture: Archaeological and ethnoarchaeological perspectives (pp. 361–370). Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dewar, R. E., Radimilahy, C., Wright, H. T., Jacobs, Z., Kelly, G. O., & Berna, F. (2013). Stone tools and foraging in northern Madagascar challenge Holocen extinction models. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 110(31), 12,583–12,588.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Langhe, E., & de Maret, P. (1999). Tracking the banana: Its significance in early agriculture. In C. Gosden & J. Hather (Eds.), The prehistory of food: Appetites for change (pp. 376–396). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Wet, J. M. J., Prasada Rao, K. E., Brink, D. E., & Mengesha, M. H. (1984). Systematics and evolution of Eleusine coracana (Gramineae). American Journal of Botany, 71, 550–557.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deacon, H. J. (1989). Late Pleistocene palaeoecology and archaeology in the southern Cape, South Africa. In P. Mellars & C. Stringer (Eds.), The human revolution: Behavioural and biological perspectives on the origins of modern humans (pp. 547–564). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deraniyagala, S. (1992). The prehistory of Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka: Department of Archaeological Survey.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deschamps, M. (1960). Histoire de Madagascar, Collection mondes d’outre-mer. Paris: Berger-Levrault.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dewar, R. E. (1996). The archaeology of the early colonization of Madagascar. In J. Reade (Ed.), The Indian Ocean in antiquity (pp. 471–486). London: Kegan Paul.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dewar, R. E., & Richards, A. F. (2012). Madagascar: A history of arrivals, what happened, and will happen next. Annual Review of Anthropology, 41, 495–517.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dewar, R. E., & Wright, H. T. (1993). The culture history of Madagascar. Journal of World Prehistory, 7, 417–466.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dick, C. W., Bermingham, E., Lemes, M. R., & Gribel, R. (2007). Extreme long-distance dispersal of the lowland rainforest tree Ceiba pentandra L. (Malvaceae) in Africa and the Neotropics. Molecular Ecology, 16, 3039–3049.

    Google Scholar 

  • Du Puy, B. (1996). The baobabs of Madagascar. Curtis’s Botanical Magazine, 13(2), 86–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dubut, V., Cartault, F., Payet, C., Thionville, M.-D., & Murail, P. (2009). Complete mitochondrial sequences for haplogroups M23 and M46: Insights into the Asian ancestry of the Malagasy population. Human Biology, 81(4), 495–500.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dueppen, S. A. (2011). Early evidence for chickens at Iron Age Kirikongo (c. AD 100–1450), Burkina Faso. Antiquity, 85, 142–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duplantier, J. M., Catalan, J., Orth, A., Grolleau, B., & Britton-Davidian, J. (2003). Systematics of the black rat in Madagascar: Consequences for the transmission and distribution of plague. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 78, 335–341.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duplantier, J. M., Orth, A., Catalan, J., & Bonhomme, F. (2002). Evidence for a mitochondrial lineage originating from the Arabian peninsula in the Madagascar house mouse (Mus musculus). Heredity, 89, 154–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duvall, C. S. (2007). Human settlement and baobab distribution in southwestern Mali. Journal of Biogeography, 34, 1947–1961.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehret, C. (1983). The first spread of food production to Southern Africa. In C. Ehret & M. Posnansky (Eds.), The archaeological and linguistic reconstruction of African history (pp. 158–181). Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehret, C. (1998). An African classical age. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ekblom, A. (2004). Changing landscapes: An environmental history of Chibuene, southern Mozambique, Global Studies in Archaeology 5. Uppsala: Department of Archaeology and Ancient History.

    Google Scholar 

  • Enserink, M. (2008). A mosquito goes global. Science, 320, 864–866.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ervynck, A. (2002). Sedentism or urbanism? On the origin of the commensal black rat (Rattus rattus). In K. Dobney & T. O’Connor (Eds.), Bones and the man: Studies in honour of Don Brothwell (pp. 95–109). Oxford: Oxbow.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feleke, Y., Pasquet, R. S., & Gepts, P. (2006). Development of PCR-based chloroplast DNA markers that characterize domesticated cowpea (Vigna unguiculata ssp. Unguiculata var. unguiculata) and highlight its crop-weed complex. Plant Systematics and Evolution, 262, 75–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fernández-Armesto, F. (2000). The Indian Ocean in world history. In A. Disney & E. Booth (Eds.), Vasco da Gama and the linking of Europe and Asia (pp. 11–29). New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferris, S. D., Sage, R. D., Prager, E. M., Ritte, U., & Wilson, A. C. (1983). Mitochondrial DNA evolution in mice. Genetics, 105, 681–721.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitzpatrick, S.M., & Callaghan, R. (2008). Seafaring simulations and the origin of prehistoric settlers to Madagascar. In Clark, G., Leach, F., & O’Connor, S. (Eds.), Islands of inquiry: Colonisation, seafaring and the archaeology of maritime landscapes (pp. 47–58).Terra Australis 29, Canberra: Australian National University Press.

  • Fleisher, J. (2003). Viewing stonetowns from the countryside: An archaeological approach to Swahili regional systems, AD 800–1500. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleisher, J. (2010a). Rituals of consumption and the politics of feasting on the eastern African coast, AD 700–1500. Journal of World Prehistory, 23, 195–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleisher, J. (2010b). Swahili synoecism: Rural settlements and town formation on the central East African coast, AD 750–1500. Journal of Field Archaeology, 35(3), 265–282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleisher, J., & Wynne-Jones, S. (2011). Ceramics and the early Swahili: Deconstructing the early Tana Tradition. African Archaeological Review, 28, 245–278.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuller, D. Q. (2003). African crops in prehistoric South Asia: A critical review. In K. Neumann, A. Butler, & S. Kahlheber (Eds.), Food, fuel and fields: Progress in African archaeobotany, Africa Praehistorica 15 series (pp. 239–271). Cologne: Heinrich-Barth-Institut.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuller, D. Q. (2008). The spread of textile production and textile crops in India beyond the Harappan zone: An aspect of the emergence of craft specialization and systematic trade. In T. Osada & A. Uesugi (Eds.), Linguistics, Archaeology and the Human Past Occasional Paper 3 (pp. 1–26). Kyoto: Indus Project, Research Institute for Humanity and Nature.

  • Fuller, D. Q., & Boivin, N. (2009). Crops, cattle and commensals across the Indian Ocean: Current and potential archaeobiological evidence. In G. Lefèvre (Ed.), Plantes et Sociétés, Etudes Océan Indien 42–43 (pp. 3–46). Paris: CEROI-INALCO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuller, D. Q., Boivin, N., Hoogervorst, T., & Allaby, R. (2011). Across the Indian Ocean: The prehistoric movement of plants and animals. Antiquity, 84, 544–558.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuller, D. Q., & Harvey, E. (2006). The archaeobotany of Indian pulses: Identification, processing and evidence for cultivation. Environmental Archaeology, 11(2), 219–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuller, D. Q., & Madella, M. (2009). Banana cultivation in South Asia and East Asia: A review of the evidence from archaeology and linguistics. Ethnobotany Research and Applications, 7, 333–351.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuller, D., & Qin, L. (2009). Water management and labour in the origins and dispersal of Asian rice. World Archaeology, 41(1), 88–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuller, D. Q., Qin, L., Zheng, Y., Zhao, Z., Chen, X., Hosoya, L. A., et al. (2009). The domestication process and domestication rate in rice: Spikelet bases from the lower Yangtze. Science, 323, 1607–1610.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuller, D. Q., Sato, Y.-I., Castillo, C., Qin, L., Weisskopf, A. R., Kingwell-Banham, E. J., et al. (2010). Consilience of genetics and archaeobotany in the entangled history of rice. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 2, 115–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garris, A. J., Tai, T. H., Coburn, J., Kresovich, S., & McCouch, S. R. (2005). Genetic structure and diversity in Oryza sativa L. Genetics, 169, 1631–1638.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giblin, J., Clement, A., & Humphris, J. (2010). An Urewe burial in Rwanda: Exchange, health, wealth and violence c. AD 400. Azania: Archaeological Research inAfrica, 45(3), 276–297.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giblin, J., & Fuller, D. Q. (2011). First and second millennium AD agriculture in Rwanda: Archaeobotanical finds and radiocarbon dates from seven sites. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 20, 253–265.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gifford-Gonzalez, D., & Hanotte, O. (2011). Domesticating animals in Africa: Implications of genetic and archaeological findings. Journal of World Prehistory, 24, 1–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, S. M. (1995). Rattus on Madagascar and the dilemma of protecting the endemic rodent fauna. Conservation Biology, 9, 450–453.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gosden, C. (1995). Arboriculture and agriculture in coastal Papua New Guinea. Antiquity, 69, 807–817.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gourjon, G., Boëtsch, G., & Degioanni, A. (2011). Gender and population history: Sex bias revealed by studying genetic admixture of Ngazidja population (Comoro Archipelago). American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 144(4), 653–660.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grigson, C. (1996). Early cattle around the Indian Ocean. In J. Reade (Ed.), The Indian Ocean in antiquity (pp. 66–74). London: Kegan Paul.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grigson, C. (2000). Bos africanus (Brehm)? Notes on the archaeozoology of the native cattle of Africa. In R. M. Blench & K. C. MacDonald (Eds.), The origins and development of African livestock: Archaeology, genetics, linguistics and ethnography (pp. 38–60). London: UCL Press/Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gunn, B., Baudouin, L., & Olsen, K. (2011). Independent origins of cultivated coconut (cocos nucifera L.) in the old world tropics. PloS, 6(6), 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, K. R. (2011). A history of early Southeast Asia: Maritime trade and societal development, 100–1500. Plymouth, UK: Rowman and Littlefield.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harlan, J. R. (1971). Agricultural origins: Centers and noncenters. Science, 174, 468–474.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harper, G. A., & Cabrera, L. F. (2010). Response of mice (Mus musculus) to the removal of black rats (Rattus rattus) in arid forest on Santa Cruz Island, Galápagos. Biological Invasions, 12, 1449–1452.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, D. R. (1967). New light on plant domestication and the origins of agriculture: A review. Geographical Review, 57, 90–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, D. L. (1972). The mammals of Arabia (Vol. 3). London: Ernest Benn Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayden, B. (2003). Were luxury foods the first domesticates? Ethnoarchaeological perspectives from Southeast Asia. World Archaeology, 34(3), 458–469.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helm, R. M., (2000). Conflicting histories: The archaeology of the iron-working, farming communities in the central and southern coast region of Kenya, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Bristol.

  • Helm, R. M., Crowther, A., Shipton, C., Tengeza, A., Fuller, D., & Boivin, N. (2012). Exploring agriculture, interaction and trade on the eastern African littoral: Preliminary results from Kenya. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 47(1), 39–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helm, R. M., & Mudida, N. (2000). Patterns of subsistence: The faunal evidence. In Helm, R. M., (Ed), Conflicting histories: The archaeology of the iron-working, farming communities in the central and southern coast region of Kenya (pp. 253–273), Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Bristol.

  • Hildebrand, E. A. (2003a). Motives and opportunities for domestication: An ethnoarchaeological study in southwest Ethiopia. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 22, 358–375.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hildebrand, E. A. (2003b). Comparison of domestic versus forest-growing Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman, Musaceae in Ethiopia—implications for detecting enset archaeologically, and modeling its domestication. In K. Neumann, A. Butler, & S. Kahlheber (Eds.), Food, fuel and fields: Progress in African archaeobotany, Africa Praehistorica 15 (pp. 49–70). Cologne: Heinrich-Barth-Institut.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hildebrand, E. A. (2007). A tale of two tuber crops: How attributes of enset and yams may have shaped prehistoric human-plant interactions in Southwest Ethiopia. In T. Denham, J. Iriarte, & L. Vrydaghs (Eds.), Rethinking agriculture: Archaeological and ethnoarchaeological perspectives (pp. 273–298). Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hildebrand, E. A., & Neumann, K. (2009). Early bananas in Africa: The state of the art. Ethnobotany Research and Applications, 7, 353–362.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hilu, K. W., & De Wet, J. M. J. (1976). Racial evolution in Eleusine coracana ssp. coracana (finger millet). American Journal of Botany, 63, 1311–1318.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hingston, M., Goodman, S., Ganzhorn, J., & Sommer, S. (2005). Reconstruction of the colonization of southern Madagascar by the introduced Rattus rattus. Journal of Biogeography, 32, 1549–1559.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, E. S. (1984). Botanical remains. In Wright, H. T. (Ed.), Early seafarers of the Comoro islands: The Dembeni phase of the ninth–tenth centuries AD. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 19, 13–59.

  • Holden, C. J. (2002). Bantu language trees reflect the spread of farming across sub-Saharan Africa: A maximum-parsimony analysis. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, 269, 793–799.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horsburgh, K. A. (2008). Wild or domesticated? An ancient DNA approach to canid species identification in South Africa’s Western Cape Province. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35, 1474–1480.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horton, M. (1990). The Periplus and East Africa. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 25, 95–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horton, M. (1996a). Shanga: The archaeology of a Muslim trading community on the coast of East Africa. Nairobi: British Institute in Eastern Africa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horton, M. (1996b). Early maritime settlement and trade along the coasts of East Africa. In J. Reade (Ed.), The Indian Ocean in antiquity (pp. 439–460). London: Kegan Paul.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horton, M. (1997). Mare Nostrum—a new archaeology in the Indian Ocean? Antiquity, 71, 753–755.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horton, M. (2004). Artisans, communities, and commodities: Medieval exchanges between northwestern India and East Africa. Ars orientalis, 34, 62–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horton, M., & Middleton, J. (2000). The Swahili: The social landscape of a mercantile society. Cambridge: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horton, M., & Mudida, N. (1993). Exploitation of marine resources: Evidence for the origin of the Swahili communities of East Africa. In T. Shaw, P. J. Sinclair, B. Andah, & A. Okpoko (Eds.), The archaeology of Africa: Food, metals and towns (pp. 673–693). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horton, M., & Mudida, N. (1996). Subsistence at Shanga: The faunal record. In M. Horton (Ed.), Shanga: The archaeology of a Muslim trading community on the coast of East Africa (pp. 378–393). Nairobi: British Institute in Eastern Africa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huffman, T. (1972). The rise and fall of Zimbabwe. The Journal of African History, 13, 353–366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huffman, T.N. (1974). The leopard’s Kopje tradition, National Museums of Southern Rhodesia, Salisbury [Harare].

  • Hurles, M., Sykes, B., Jobling, M., & Forster, P. (2005). The dual origin of the Malagasy in island Southeast Asia and East Africa: Evidence from maternal and paternal lineages. American Journal of Human Genetics, 76, 894–901.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hutterer, R., & Tranier, M. (1990). The immigration of the Asian house shrew (Suncus murinus) into Africa and Madagascar: Vertebrates in the tropics. In G. Peters & R. Hutterer (Eds.), Proceedings of the international symposium on vertebrate biogeography and systematics in the tropics (pp. 309–319). Bonn: Zoologisches Forschungsinstitut und Museum Alexander Koenig.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hutterer, R. (2005). Order Soricomorpha. In D. E. Wilson & D. M. Reeder (Eds.), Mammal species of the world: A taxonomic and geographic reference (3rd ed., pp. 220–311). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

  • Jama, A. (1996). The origins and development of Mogadishu AD 1000–1850: A case study of urban growth along the Benadir coast of southern Somalia, Studies in African Archaeology 12. Uppsala: Societas Archaeologica Upsaliensis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, L. W. (1992). The plant remains. In Wright, H. T., Early Islam, oceanic trade and town development on Nzwani: The Comorian archipelago in the eleventh–fifteenth centuries. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 27, 81–128.

  • Jones, E. P., Eager, H. M., Gabriel, S. I., Jóhannesdóttir, F., & Searle, J. B. (2013). Genetic tracking of mice and other bioproxies to infer human history. Trends in Genetics, 29, 298–308.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jonsson, J. (1998). Early plant economy in Zimbabwe. Uppsala: Department of Archaeology and Ancient History.

    Google Scholar 

  • Juma, A. (1996). The Swahili and the Mediterranean worlds: Pottery of the late Roman period from Zanzibar. Antiquity, 70, 148–154.

    Google Scholar 

  • Juma, A. (2004). Unguja Ukuu on Zanzibar: An archaeological study of early urbanism. Uppsala: Uppsala University Department of Archaeology and Ancient History.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kahlheber, S., & Neumann, K. (2007). The development of plant cultivation in semi-arid West Africa. In T. P. Denham, J. Iriarte, & L. Vrydaghs (Eds.), Rethinking agriculture: Archaeological and ethnoarchaeological perspectives (pp. 320–346). Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kajale, M. D. (1989). Mesolithic exploitation of wild plants in Sri Lanka: Archaeobotanical study at the cave site of Beli-Lena. In D. R. Harris & G. C. Hillman (Eds.), Foraging and farming: The evolution of plant exploitation (pp. 269–281). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanginakudru, S., Metta, M., Jakati, R. D., & Nagaraju, J. (2008). Genetic evidence from Indian red jungle fowl corroborates multiple domestication of modern day chicken. BMC Evolutionary Biology, 8, 174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kato, Y. (1991). A preliminary summary of the Palaeolithic culture development in the Coast Province of Kenya. In G. Omi (Ed.), An interim report on the East and Northeast African prehistory research project. Matsumoto: Shinsu University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, J. (2009). Bananas: Towards a revised prehistory. In A. Fairbairn & E. Weiss (Eds.), From foragers to farmers: Papers in honour of Gordon C. Hillman (pp. 190–204). Oxford: Oxbow.

  • Kessy, E. T. (1997). Archaeological sites survey from Kisiju to Dar es Salaam. Nyame Akuma, 48, 57–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kessy, E.T. (2005). The relationship between the Later Stone Age and Iron Age cultures of central Tanzania, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Simon Fraser University.

  • Khush, G. S. (1997). Origin, dispersal, cultivation and variation of rice. Plant Molecular Biology, 35, 25–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirch, P. V. (1982). Transported landscapes. Natural History, 91, 32–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirkman, J. S. (1964). Men and monuments on the East African coast. London: Lutterworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klapwijk, M. (1974). A preliminary report on pottery from the northeastern Transvaal, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 29, 19–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klee, M., Zach, B., & Neumann, K. (2000). Four thousand years of plant exploitation in the Chad Basin of northeast Nigeria: The archaeobotany of Kursakata. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 9, 223–237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knudsen, A. B. (1995). Global distribution and continuing spread of Aedes albopictus. Parassitologia, 37(2–3), 91–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koji, T. (1997). Malayan cultivated rice and its expansion. Agricultural Archaeology, 1, 73–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kovach, M. J., Calingacion, M. N., Fitzgerald, M. A., & McCouch, S. R. (2009). The origin and evolution of fragrance in rice (Oryza sativa L.). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 106(34), 14444–14449.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kovach, M. J., Sweeney, M. T., & McCouch, S. R. (2007). New insights into the history of rice domestication. Trends in Genetics, 23, 578–587.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kurachi, M., Chau, B., Dang, V., Dorji, T., Yamamoto, Y., Nyunt, M., et al. (2007a). Population structure of wild musk shrews (Suncus murinus) in Asia based on mitochondrial DNA variation, with research in Cambodia and Bhutan. Biochemical Genetics, 45, 165–183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kurachi, M., Chau, B., Dang, V., Dorji, T., Yamamoto, Y., Nyunt, M., et al. (2007b). Phylogeography of wild musk shrew (Suncus murinus) populations in Asia based on blood protein/enzyme variation. Biochemical Genetics, 45, 543–563.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kusimba, C. M. (1999). The rise and fall of Swahili states. Walnut Creek: AltaMira Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kusimba, C. M., & Kusimba, S. B. (2005). Mosaics and interactions: East Africa, 2,000 bp to the present. In A. Stahl (Ed.), African archaeology: A critical introduction (pp. 392–419). Oxford: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kwekason, A. (2007). Pre-early iron working communities on the southern coast of Tanzania. In G. Pwiti, C. Radimilahy, & F. Chami (Eds.), Settlements, economies, and technology in the African past, Studies in the African Past 6. Dar es Salaam: African Archaeological Network.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lane, P. (2004). The ‘moving frontier’ and the transition to food production in Kenya. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 39, 243–264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lane, P., Ashley, C. Z., Seitsonen, O., Harvey, P., Mire, S., & Odede, F. (2007). The transition to farming in eastern Africa: New faunal and dating evidence from Wadh Lang’o and Usenge, Kenya. Antiquity, 81, 62–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • LaViolette, A. (2008). Swahili cosmopolitanism in Africa and the Indian Ocean World, AD 600–1500. Archaeologies, 4, 24–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawler, A. (2012). The ingredients for a 4000-year-old proto-curry. Science, 337, 288.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lebrun, P., N’Cho, Y. P., Seguin, M., Grivet, L., & Baudouin, L. (1998). Genetic diversity in the coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) revealed by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) markers. Euphytica, 101, 103–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lejju, B. J., Robertshaw, P., & Taylor, D. (2006). Africa’s earliest bananas? Journal of Archaeological Science, 33, 102–113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Londo, J. P., Chiang, Y., Hung, K., Chiang, T., & Schaal, B. A. (2006). Phylogeography of Asian wild rice, Oryza rufipogon, reveals multiple independent domestications of cultivated rice, Oryza sativa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 103, 9578–9583.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maass, B. L., Jamnadass, R. H., Hanson, J., & Pengelly, B. C. (2005). Determining sources of diversity in cultivated and wild Lablab purpureus related to provenance of germplasm by using amplified fragment length polymorphism. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 52, 683–695.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald, K. (1992). The domestic chicken (Gallus gallus) in sub-Saharan Africa: A background to its introduction and its osteological differentiation from indigenous fowls (Numidinae and Francolinus sp.). Journal of Archaeological Science, 19, 303–318.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald, K., & Edwards, D. (1993). Chickens in Africa: The importance of Qasr Ibrim. Antiquity, 67, 548–590.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacPhee, R. D., & Burney, D. A. (1991). Dating of modified femora of extinct dwarf hippopotamus from southern Madagascar: Implications for constraining human colonization and vertebrate extinction events. Journal of Archaeological Science, 18, 695–706.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maggs, T., & Ward, V. (1984). Early Iron Age sites in the Muden area of Natal. Annals of the Natal Museum, 26, 105–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Magnavita, C. (2006). Ancient humped cattle in Africa: A view from the Chad Basin. African Archaeological Review, 23, 55–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manguin, P.-Y. (1993). Trading ships of the South China Sea. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 38, 253–280.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manguin, P.-Y. (2010). The Maldives connection: Pre-modern Malay world shipping across the Indian Ocean. In C. Radimilahy & N. Rajaonarimanana (Eds.), Civilisations des mondes insulaires: Madagascar, îles du canal de Mozambique (pp. 261–284). Polynésie, Guyanes, Karthala, Paris: Mascareignes.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manning, K., Pelling, R., Higham, T., Schwenniger, J.-L., & Fuller, D. Q. (2011). 4500-year old domesticated pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) from the Tilemsi Valley, Mali: New insights into an alternative cereal domestication pathway. Journal of Archaeological Science, 38(2), 312–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marean, C. W. (2010). When the sea saved humanity. Scientific American, 303, 54–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marean, C. W., & Shea, J. J. (1996). Archaeological reconnaissance of the Mkulumuzi and Sigi river valleys, Tanga District, Tanzania. Nyame Akuma, 45, 72–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, F. (1989). Rethinking the role of Bos indicus in sub-Saharan Africa. Current Anthropology, 30, 235–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, F. (2000). The origins of domesticated cattle in Eastern Africa. In R. M. Blench & K. C. MacDonald (Eds.), The origins and development of African livestock: Archaeology, genetics, linguistics and ethnography (pp. 191–221). London: University College London Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, F., & Hildebrand, E. (2002). Cattle before crops: The beginnings of food production in Africa. Journal of World Prehistory, 16, 99–143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, F. W. (1976). Tropical yams and their potential, Part 3, Dioscorea alata, Handbook 495. Washington, DC: USDA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mather, K. A., Molina, J., Flowers, J., Rubinstein, S., Rauh, B., Lawton-Rauth, A., et al. (2010). Migration, isolation and hybridization in island crop populations: The case of Madagascar rice. Molecular Ecology, 19, 4892–4905.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matisoo-Smith, L., & Robins, J. H. (2004). Origins and dispersals of Pacific peoples: Evidence from mtDNA phylogenies of the Pacific rat. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 101(24), 9167–9172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matteucci, R., Belluomini, G., & Manfra, L. (2007). Late Holocene environmental change in the coastal southern Somalia inferred from Achatina and rhizoliths. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 49, 79–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mbida, C., De Langhe, E., Vrydaghs, L., Doutrelepont, H., Swennen, R., Van Neer, W., et al. (2006). Phytolith evidence for the early presence of domesticated banana (Musa) in Africa. In M. Zeder, D. Bailer, E. Emshwiller, & B. D. Smith (Eds.), Documenting domestication: New genetic and archaeological paradigms (pp. 68–81). Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mbida, C., Van Neer, W., Doutrelepont, H., & Vrydaghs, L. (2000). Evidence for banana cultivation and animal husbandry during the first millennium BC in the forest of southern Cameroon. Journal of Archaeological Science, 27, 151–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meegaskumbura, S., Meegaskumbura, M., & Schneider, C. J. (2012). Phylogenetic position of Suncus fellowesgordoni with pigmy shrews from Madagascar and Southeast Asia inferred from cytochrome-b. Ceylon Journal of Science (Biological Sciences), 41(1), 83–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J. I. (1969). The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire, 29 BC to AD 641. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  • Mitchell, P. (2002). The archaeology of southern Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, P. (2005). African connections: Archaeological perspectives on Africa and the wider world. Walnut Creek: AltaMira Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morais, J. (1988). The early farming communities of southern Mozambique, Studies in African Archaeology 3. Uppsala: Societas Archaeologica Upsaliensis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morelli, G., Song, Y., Mazzoni, C. J., Eppinger, M., Roumagnac, P., Wagner, D. M., et al. (2010). Yersinia pestis genome sequencing identifies patterns of global phylogenetic diversity. Nature Genetics, 42, 1140–1143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morton, J. (1987). Rambutan. In J. F. Morton (Ed.), Fruits of warm climates (pp. 262–265). Florida Flair Books: Miami, FL.

  • Msaidie, S., Ducourneau, A., Boetsch, G., Longepied, G., Papa, K., Allibert, C., et al. (2011). Genetic diversity on the Comoros Islands shows early seafaring as major determinant of human biocultural evolution in the western Indian Ocean. European Journal of Human Genetics, 19, 89–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muchadeyi, F. C., Eding, H., Simianer, H., Wollny, C. B. A., Groenveld, E., & Weigend, S. (2008). Mitochondrial DNA d-loop sequences suggest a Southeast Asian and Indian origin of Zimbabwean village chickens. Animal Genetics, 39, 615–622.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muchadeyi, F. C., Eding, H., Wollny, C. B. A., Groeneveld, E., Makuza, S. M., Shamseldin, R., et al. (2007). Absence of population substructuring in Zimbabwe chicken ecotypes inferred using microsatellite analysis. Animal Genetics, 38, 332–339.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mudida, N., & Horton, M. (in press). Subsistence and the faunal record, in M. Horton, Zanzibar and Pemba: The archaeology of an Indian Ocean archipelago. London: British Institute in Eastern Africa & Ashgate Publishers.

  • Murdoch, G. P. (1959). Africa, its peoples and their culture history. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, S. S. (2008). A report on the charred botanical remains from Sincu Bara, a mid first millennium Middle Senegal Valley site. Nyame Akuma, 69, 56–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mutoro, H. W. (1998). Precolonial trading systems of the East African interior. In G. Connah (Ed.), Transformations in Africa: Essays on Africa’s later past (pp. 186–203). London: Leicester University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mwacharo, J. M., Bjørnstad, G., Mogebi, V., Nomura, K., Hanada, H., Amano, T., et al. (2011). Mitochondrial DNA reveals multiple introductions of domestic chicken in East Africa. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 58(2), 374–382.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nahonyo, C. L., Mwasumbi, L. B., Msuya, C. A., Masao, C. A., Suya, T. B., & Shing‘Wenda, C. (2005). Ngezi-Vumawimbi forest reserves biodiversity inventory report. Zanzibar: CARE Tanzania and Department of Commercial Crops, Fruits and Forestry.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, C. (1993). Evidence for early trade between the coast and interior of East Africa. Paper presented at the World Archaeological Congress Mombassa Intercongress Conference. http://www.chaz.org/Arch/Turkana/Jarigole/TRADE.HTM.

  • Neumann, K., Boeston, K., Höhn, A., Kahlheber, S., Ngomanda, A., & Tchiengué, B. (2012). First farmers in the Central African rainforest: A view from southern Cameroon. Quaternary International, 249, 53–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Noda, K., Teerawatsakul, M., Prakongvongs, C., & Chaiwiratnukul, L. (1985). Major weeds in Thailand. Bangkok: Department of Agriculture.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nurse, D., & Hinnesbusch, T. (1993). Swahili and Sabaki: A linguistic history. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nurse, D., & Spear, T. (1985). The Swahili: Reconstructing the history and language of an African society, 800–1500. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Omar, H., Adamson, E. A. S., Bhassu, S., Goodman, S. M., Soarimalala, V., Hashim, R., et al. (2011). Phylogenetic relationships of Malayan and Malagasy pygmy shrews of the genus Suncus (Soricomorpha: Soricidae) inferred from mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, 59(2), 237–243.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orme, A. R. (1996). Coastal environments. In W. M. Adams, A. S. Goudie, & A. R. Orme (Eds.), The physical geography of Africa (pp. 238–266). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parker Pearson, M. (2010). Pastoralists, warriors and colonists: The archaeology of southern Madagascar, BAR International Series 2139, Oxford.

  • Pawlowicz, M. (2011). Finding their place in the Swahili World: An archaeological exploration of southern Tanzania, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Virginia.

  • Pawlowicz, M. (2012). Modelling the Swahili past: The archaeology of Mikindani in southern coastal Tanzania. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 47, 488–508.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pearson, M. (2003). The Indian Ocean. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perera, L., Baudouin, L., Bourdeix, R., Bait Fadil, A., Hountounddji, F. C. C., & Al-Shanfri, A. (2011a). Coconut palms on the edge of the desert: Genetic diversity of Cocos nucifera L. in Oman. CORD, 27, 9–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perera, N., Kourampas, N., Simpson, I. A., Deraniyagala, S. U., Bulbeck, D., Kamminga, J., et al. (2011b). People of the ancient rainforest: Late Pleistocene foragers at the Batadomba-lena rockshelter, Sri Lanka. Journal of Human Evolution, 61, 254–269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perera, L., Russel, J. R., Provan, J., & Powell, W. (2003). Studying genetic relationships among coconut varieties/populations using microsatellite markers. Euphytica, 132, 121–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perez, V. R., Godfrey, L. R., Nowak-Kemp, M., Burney, D. A., Ratsimbazafy, J., & Vasey, N. (2005). Evidence for early butchery of giant lemurs in Madagascar. Journal of Human Evolution, 49, 722–742.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perrier, X., De Langhe, E., Donohue, M., Lentfer, C., Vrydaghs, L., Bakry, F., et al. (2011). Multidisciplinary perspectives on banana (Musa spp.) domestication. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 108(28), 11311–11318.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phillipson, D. (1993). Archaeology of Africa (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Plug, I. (1996). Seven centuries of Iron Age traditions at Bosutswe, Botswana: A faunal perspective. South African Journal of Science, 92, 91–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Plug, I. (2000). Overview of Iron Age fauna from the Limpopo Valley. Goodwin Series, 8, 117–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pock Tsy, J.-M. L., Lumaret, R., Mayne, D., Vall, A. O. M., Abutaba, Y. I. M., Sagna, M., et al. (2009). Chloroplast DNA phylogeography suggests a West African centre of origin for the baobab, Adansonia digitat L. (Bombacoideae, Malvaceae). Molecular Ecology, 18, 1707–1715.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prager, E. M., Orrego, C., & Sage, R. D. (1998). Genetic variation and phylogeography of Central Asian and other house mice, including a major new mitochondrial lineage in Yemen. Genetics, 150, 835–861.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prendergast, M. E. (2010). Diversity in East African foraging and food producing communities. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 45(1), 1–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Presholdt, J. (2008). Domesticating the world: African consumerism and the genealogies of globalization. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Purugganan, M. (2010). The evolution of rice: Molecular vignettes on its origins and spread. Archaeological and Anthropological Science, 2, 61–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pwiti, G. (1996). Continuity and change: An archaeological study of farming communities in northern Zimbabwe AD 500–1700, Studies in African Archaeology 13. Uppsala: Department of Archaeology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Radanielina, T., Ramanantsoanirina, A., Raboin, L.-M., Frouin, J., Perrier, X., Brabant, P., et al. (2013). The original features of rice (Oryza sativa L.) genetic diversity and the importance of within-variety diversity in the highlands of Madagascar build a strong case for in situ conservation. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 60(1), 311–323.

    Google Scholar 

  • Radimilahy, C. (1988). L’ancienne métallurgie du fer à Madagascar, Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 28, BAR International Series 422, British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.

  • Radimilahy, C. (1993). Ancient iron-working in Madagascar. In T. Shaw, P. J. Sinclair, B. Andah, & A. Okpoko (Eds.), The archaeology of Africa: Food, metals and towns (pp. 478–493). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Radimilahy, C. (1998). Mahilaka: An archaeological investigation of an early town in northwestern Madagascar, Studies in African Archaeology 15. Uppsala: Department of Archaeology and Ancient History.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rakotozafy, L. M. A., & Goodman, S. M. (2005). Contribution à l’étude zooarchéologique de la région du Sud-ouest et extrême Sud de Madagascar sur la base des collections de l’ICMAA de l’Université d’Antananarivo. Taloha, 14–15, http://www.taloha.info/document.php?id=181.

  • Razafindraibe, H., Mobegi, V. A., Ommeh, S. C., Rakotondravao, J., Bjornstad, G., Hanotte, O., et al. (2008). Mitochondrial DNA origin of indigenous Malagasy chicken: Implications for a functional polymorphism at the Mx gene. Animal Biodiversity and Emerging Disease: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1149, 77–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Razafindrazaka, H., Ricaut, F. X., Cox, M., Mormina, M., Dugoujon, J. M., Randriamarolaza, L., et al. (2010). Complete mitochondrial DNA sequences provide new insights into the Polynesian motif and the people of Madagascar. European Journal of Human Genetics, 18, 575–581.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reade, J. (Ed.). (1996). The Indian Ocean in antiquity. London: Kegan Paul.

    Google Scholar 

  • Redding, R. W. (1992). The vertebrate remains, In Wright, H. T., (Ed.) Early Islam, oceanic trade and town development on Nzwani: The Comorian archipelago in the eleventh–fifteenth centuries, Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 27, 81–128.

  • Redding, R. W., & Goodman, S. M. (1984). Reptile, bird and mammal remains. In Wright, H. T., (Ed). Early seafarers of the Comoro Islands: The Dembeni phase of the ninth–tenth centuries AD, Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 19, 13–59.

  • Reddy, S. N. (1994). Plant usage and subsistence modeling: An ethnoarchaeological approach to the late Harappan of northwest India. PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin.

  • Reiguero, M., Mirabal, S., Lacau, H., Caeiro, J. L., Garcia-Bertrand, R. L., & Herrera, R. J. (2008). Austronesian genetic signature in East African Madagascar and Polynesia. Journal of Human Genetics, 53, 106–120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ricaut, F. X., Razafindrazaka, H., Cox, M., Dugoujon, J. M., Guitard, E., Sambo, C., et al. (2009). A new deep branch of Eurasian mtDNA macrohaplogroup M reveals additional complexity regarding the settlement of Madagascar. BMC Genomics, 10, 605.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robertshaw, P. (2003). The origins of the state in East Africa. In C. Kusimba & S. Kusimba (Eds.), East African archaeology: Foragers, potters, smiths and traders (pp. 149–166). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.

  • Robertshaw, P., & Collet, D. (1983). A new framework for the study of early pastoral communities in East Africa. Journal of African History, 24, 289–301.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rocha, S., Carretero, M. A., & Harris, D. J. (2010). On the diversity, colonization patterns and status of Hemidactylus spp. (Reptilia: Gekkonidae) from the western Indian Ocean islands. Herpetological Journal, 20, 83–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruffino, L., & Vidal, E. (2010). Early colonization of Mediterranean islands by Rattus rattus: A review of zooarchaeological data. Biological Invasions, 12, 2389–2394.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schoenbrun, D. L. (1993). We are what we eat: Ancient agriculture between the Great Lakes. Journal of African History, 34, 1–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schott, F., & McCreary, J., Jr. (2001). The monsoon circulation of the Indian Ocean. Progress in Oceanography, 51, 1–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Searle, J. (2008). The genetics of mammalian invasions: A review. Wildlife Research, 35, 185–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shajan, K. P., Cherian, P. J., Tomber, R., & Selvakumar, V. (2008). The external connections of early historic Pattanam, India: The ceramic evidence. Antiquity, 82, 57–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shajan, K. P., Tomber, R., Selvakumar, V., & Cherian, P. J. (2004). Locating the ancient port of Muziris: Fresh findings from Pattanam. Journal of Roman Archaeology, 17, 351–359.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheriff, A. (2010). Dhow cultures of the Indian Ocean: Cosmopolitanism, commerce and Islam. London: Hurst & Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shetty, B. V., & Singh, V. (1987). Flora of Rajasthan (Vol. 3). Calcutta: Botanical Survey of India.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simmonds, N. W. (1962). The evolution of the bananas. London: Longmans.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simon, P. (1988). Ny fiteny fahizany: Reconstitution et périodisation du malgache ancien jusqu’au XIVè siècle. Paris: CEROI.

  • Simons, E. L., Burney, D. A., Chatrath, P. S., Godfrey, L. R., Jungers, W. L., & Rakotosamimanana, B. (1995). AMS 14C dates for extinct lemurs from caves in the Ankarana Massif, northern Madagascar. Quaternary Research, 43, 249–254.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sinclair, P. J. (1982). Chibuene: An early trading city in southern Mozambique. Paideuma, 28, 149–164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sinclair, P. J. (1987). Space, time and social formation: A territorial approach to the archaeology and anthropology of Zimbabwe and Mozambique c. 0–1700 AD, Societas Archaeologica Upsaliensis, Uppsala.

  • Sinclair, P. J. (1991). Archaeology in Eastern Africa: An overview of current chronological issues. Journal of African History, 32, 179–219.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sinclair, P. (2007). What is the archaeological evidence for external trading contacts on the East African coast in the first millennium BC? In Starkey, J., Starkey, P., & Wilkinson, T. (Eds.), Natural resources and wider connections of the Red Sea (pp. 1–8), British archaeological reports International series S1661, Archaeopress, Oxford.

  • Sinclair, P., Ekblom, A., & Wood, M. (2012). Trade and society on the southeast African coast in the later first millennium AD: The case of Chibuene. Antiquity, 86, 723–737.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sinclair, P. J., Juma, A., & Chami, F. (2006). Excavations at Kuumbi Cave on Zanzibar in 2005. Studies in the African Past, 5, 95–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sinclair, P. J., Morais, J. M., Adampwicz, L., & Duarte, R. T. (1993). A perspective on archaeological research in Mozambique. In T. Shaw, P. J. Sinclair, B. Andah, & A. Okpoko (Eds.), The archaeology of Africa: Food, metals and towns (pp. 409–431). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, N. P., P., Lakshminarasimhan, S., Karthikeyan, & Prasanna, P. V. (2001). Flora of Maharashtra State. Dicotyledons, 2 vol, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

  • Smith, M. C., & Wright, H. T. (1988). The ceramics from Ras Hafun in Somalia: Notes on a classical maritime site. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 23, 115–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Soper, R. (1966). Archaeological evidence from the coastal hinterland of Kenya and northeast Tanzania. Unpublished paper, Fort Jesus Museum:Mombasa.

  • Soper, R. (1967). Kwale: An early Iron Age site in south-eastern Kenya. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 2, 1–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Soper, R. (1975). Notes on some caves in Kilifi District, Kenya. Unpublished paper, Cave Exploration Group of the East Africa Society.

  • Spear, T. (2000). Early Swahili reconsidered. International Journal of African Historical Studies, 33(2), 257–290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stemler, A. B., Harlan, J. R., & De Wet, J. M. J. (1975). Evolutionary history of cultivated sorghums (Sorghum bicolour [Linn.] Moench) of Ethiopia. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 102(6), 325–333.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sutton, J. (1994–1995). East Africa: Interior and coast. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 29–30, 227–231.

  • Sutton, J. E. G. (2002). Research and interpretation in eastern African archaeology: A review of ‘People, contact(s) and the environment in the African past’. Journal of African History, 43, 503–540.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tadulingham, C., & Venkatanarayana, G. (1985). A handbook of some South Indian weeds. Delhi: Periodical Expert Book Agency.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tate, D. (2000). Tropical fruit. Singapore: Archipelago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Teulat, B., Aldam, C., Trehin, R., Lebrun, P., Barker, J. H. A., Arnold, G. M., et al. (2000). An analysis of genetic diversity of the coconut (Cocos nucifera) populations from across the geographic range using sequence-tagged microsatellites (SSRs) and AFLPs. Theoretical and Applied Genetics, 100, 764–771.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tofanelli, S., & Bertoncini, S. (2010). Origin and evolutionary history of the Malagasy, Encyclopaedia of life sciences (ELS). Chichester: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tofanelli, S., Bertoncini, S., Castri, L., Luiselli, D., Calafell, F., Donati, G., et al. (2009). On the origins and admixture of Malagasy: New evidence from high-resolution analyses of paternal and maternal lineages. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 26(9), 2109–2124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tollenaere, C., Brouat, C., Duplantier, J.-M., Rahalison, L., Rahelinira, S., Pascal, M., et al. (2009). Phylogeography of the introduced species Rattus rattus in the western Indian Ocean, with special emphasis on the colonization history of Madagascar. Journal of Biogeography, 37, 398–410.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Veen, M. (2011). Consumption, trade and innovation: Exploring the botanical remains from the Roman and Islamic ports at Quseir al-Qadim, Egypt. Frankfurt: Africa Magna Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vandercone, R., Sajithran, T., Wijeyamohan, S., & Santiapillai, C. (2004). The status of the baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) in Mannar Island, Sri Lanka. Current Science, 87(12), 1709–1713.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vansina, J. (1997). Slender evidence, weighty consequences: On one word in the ‘Periplus Maris Erythraei’. History in Africa, 24, 393–397.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vassy, N., & Burney, D.A. (2007). Subfossil rodent species assemblages from Andrahomana Cave, southeastern Madagascar: Evidence of introduced species and faunal turnover, poster at the Conference ‘Rats, humans and their impacts on Islands’, Hawai’i.

  • Vazeille, M., Mousson, L., Rakatoarivony, I., Villeret, R., Rodhain, F., Duchemin, J.-B., et al. (2001). Population genetic structure and competence as a vector for dengue type 2 virus of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus from Madagascar. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 65(5), 491–497.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vences, M., Wanke, S., Vieites, D. R., Branch, W. R., Glaw, F., & Meyer, A. (2004). Natural colonization or introduction? Phylogeographical relationships and morphological differentiation of house geckos (Hemidactylus) from Madagascar. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 83, 115–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vérin, P., & Wright, H. (1999). Madagascar and Indonesia: New evidence from archaeology and linguistics. Indo-Pacific Prehistory Bulletin, 18, 35–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Voigt, E. A., & von den Driesch, A. (1984). Preliminary report on the faunal assemblages from Ndondondwane, Natal. Annals of the Natal Museum, 26, 95–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • von den Driesch, A., & Boessnick, J. (1983). A Roman cat skeleton from Quseir on the Red Sea Coast. Journal of Archaeological Science, 10, 205–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vossen, R. (2007). Languages of the desert…and what they can tell us about the economic history of southern Africa. Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika, 18, 175–185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, M. T. (2007). Island subsistence: Hunting, trapping and the translocation of wildlife in the western Indian Ocean. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 42, 83–113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walshaw, S. C. (2005). Swahili urbanization, trade, and food production: Botanical perspectives from Pemba Island, Tanzania, AD 600–1500. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Washington University, St. Louis.

  • Walshaw, S. C. (2010). Converting to rice: Urbanization, Islamization and crops on Pemba Island, Tanzania, AD 700–1500. World Archaeology, 42, 137–154.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walshaw, S. C., & Pistor, D. (2011). Flotation at Songo Mnara: First macrobotanical finds. Paper presented at the 20th SAfA/13th PANAF Conference, Dakar, Senegal.

  • Walter, R., Buffler, R., Bruggemann, J. H., Guillaume, M., Berhe, S., Negassi, B., et al. (2000). Early human occupation of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea during the last interglacial. Nature, 405, 65–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walz, J. (2010). Route to a regional past: An archaeology of the Lower Pangani (Ruvu) Basin, Tanzania, 500–1900 CE. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Florida.

  • Watson, A. M. (1983). Agricultural innovation in the early Islamic world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weber, S. A. (1991). Plants and Harappan subsistence: An example of stability and change from Rojdi. New Delhi: Oxford/IBH.

  • Wendorf, R., & Schild, R. (1994). Are the early Holocene cattle in the eastern Sahara domestic or wild? Evolutionary Anthropology, 3, 118–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wetterstrom, W., & Wright, H. T. (2007). Contribution of the palaeoethnobotany of the Central Highlands of Madagascar. In Wright, H. T. (Ed.), Early state formation in central Madagascar: An archaeological survey of western Avaradrano (pp. 281–288), Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

  • Wickens, G. E. (1982). The baobab: Africa’s upside-down tree. Kew Bulletin, 37(2), 173–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wigboldus, J.S. (1994–1995). The spread of crops into sub-equatorial Africa during the Early Iron Age. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 29–30, 121–129.

  • Wigboldus, J. S. (1996). Early presence of African millets near the Indian Ocean. In J. Reade (Ed.), The Indian Ocean in antiquity (pp. 75–86). London: Kegan Paul.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wild, J. P., Wild, F. C., & Clapham, A. J. (2007). Irrigation and the spread of cotton growing in Roman times. Archaeological Textiles Newsletter, 44, 16–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, K. (1993). Linguistic evidence for the use of some tree and tuber food plants in Southern Nigeria. In T. Shaw, P. Sinclair, P. B. Andah, & A. Okpoko (Eds.), The archaeology of Africa: Food, metals and towns (pp. 104–116). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, T. H., & Omar, A. L. (1997). Archaeological investigations at Pate. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 32, 31–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolters, O. W. (1967). Early Indonesian commerce: A study of the origins of Srivijaya. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, M. (2011). Interconnections: Glass beads and trade in southern and eastern Africa and the Indian Ocean–7th to 16th centuries AD. Department of Archaeology and Ancient History. Studies in Global Archaeology 17, Uppsala: Department of Archaeology and Ancient HIstory, Uppsala University.

  • Wright, H. T. (1984). Early seafarers of the Comoro Islands: The Dembeni phase of the ninth–tenth centuries AD. Azania Archaeological Research in Africa, 19, 13–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, D. (1993). Trade and politics on the eastern littoral of Africa, AD 800–1300. In T. Shaw, P. J. Sinclair, B. Andah, & A. Okpoko (Eds.), The archaeology of Africa: Food, metals and towns (pp. 658–672). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, D. (2005). New perspectives on early regional interaction networks of East African trade: A view from Tsavo national park, Kenya. African Archaeological review, 22(3), 111–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, D. (2007). Tethered mobility and riparian resource exploitation among Neolithic hunters and herders in the Galana river basin, Kenyan coastal lowlands. Environmental Archaeology, 12(1), 25–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wrigley, C. (2010). The Periplus and related matters. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 32(1), 112–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mudida and Horton (in prep). Subsistence and the faunal record. In Horton, M. (Ed.), Zanzibar and Pemba: Archaeological investigations of an Indian Ocean archipelago, British Institute in Eastern Africa, London.

  • Yamagata, T., Ohishi, K., Faruque, M. O., Masangkay, J. S., Ba-Loc, C., Vu-Binh, D., et al. (1995). Genetic variation and geographic distribution of the mitochondrial DNA in local populations of the musk shrew, Suncus murinus. Japanese Journal of Genetics, 70, 321–337.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yom-Tov, Y., Yom-Tov, S., & Moller, H. (1999). Competition, coexistence, and adaptation amongst rodent invaders to Pacific and New Zealand islands. Journal of Biogeography, 26, 947–958.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yoshida, T. H. (1980). Cytogenetics of the black rat: Karyotype evolution and species differentiation. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zumbroich, T. J. (2007). The origin and diffusion of betel chewing: A synthesis of evidence from South Asia, Southeast Asia and beyond. eJournal of Indian Medicine, 1, 87–140.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This paper reflects the activities of the Sealinks Project, funded through a European Research Council Grant, Agreement No. 206148, awarded to Nicole Boivin. We also acknowledge support from a British Academy Post-Doctoral Fellowship to Alison Crowther. We thank Solomon Pomerantz and two anonymous reviewers for edits to the original manuscript. We are also grateful to Philippe Beaujard, Roger Blench, Carl Christensen, Bob Dewar, Mark Horton, Paul Lane, Edmond De Langhe, Solomon Pomerantz, Chantal Radimilahy, Leonie Raijmakers, and Paul Sinclair for useful information and discussions that have helped us to better understand the East African past and related species movements.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Archaeology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

    Nicole Boivin & Alison Crowther

  2. Canterbury Archaeological Trust, Canterbury, UK

    Richard Helm

  3. Institute of Archaeology, University College London, London, UK

    Dorian Q. Fuller

Authors
  1. Nicole Boivin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Alison Crowther
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Richard Helm
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Dorian Q. Fuller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nicole Boivin.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Boivin, N., Crowther, A., Helm, R. et al. East Africa and Madagascar in the Indian Ocean world. J World Prehist 26, 213–281 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10963-013-9067-4

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10963-013-9067-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation