Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Effects of Equine-Facilitated Psychotherapy on Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms in Youth

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Equine-assisted therapy has become an increasingly popular complementary mental health treatment approach, but there is limited empirical research assessing the effectiveness of this practice. In particular, equine-facilitated psychotherapy has many potential benefits for the treatment of trauma in youth. The purpose of the proposed study was to investigate changes in levels of post-traumatic stress symptomatology and levels of the human-animal bond in children and adolescents ages 10–18 over the course of a 10-week equine-facilitated psychotherapy (EFP) intervention. Youth in the treatment group (n = 36) participated in 10 weekly two hour EFP sessions, and were compared on changes in post-traumatic stress symptoms with a control group of participants (n = 32) who continued to receive the already existing traditional therapeutic services provided by their treatment facility or outpatient therapist. Findings suggested a significant decrease in post-traumatic stress symptoms across the intervention for both the treatment and control group, but the treatment group did not decrease significantly more than the control group. These findings suggest that EFP may be an effective additional treatment modality for post-traumatic stress symptoms, but there was no evidence from this initial study that EFP was significantly more effective than traditional office-based therapy. Further research and discussion of the relative benefits of EFP compared to traditional treatment modalities is warranted.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alaggia, R. (2005). Speaking the unspeakable: examining the impact of family dynamics on child sexual abuse disclosures. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 86(2), 227–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bachi, K., Terkel, J., & Teichman, M. (2012). Equine-facilitated psychotherapy for at-risk adolescents: the influence on self-image, self-control and trust. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17(2), 298–312.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barker, S. B., Pandurangi, A. K., & Best, A. M. (2003). Effects of animal-assisted therapy on patients’ anxiety, fear, and depression before ECT. Journal of ECT, 19(1), 38–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brackenridge, S. S., & Shoemaker, R. S. (1996). The human/horse bond and client bereavement in equine practice, part 1. Equine Practice, 18(1), 19–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandt, C. (2013). Equine-facilitated psychotherapy as a complementary treatment intervention. The Practitioner Scholar: Journal of Counseling and Professional Psychology, 2(1), 23–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briere, J., & Elliott, D. M. (2003). Prevalence and psychological sequelae of self-reported childhood physical and sexual abuse in a general population sample of men and women. Child Abuse & Neglect, 27, 1205–1222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, S. (2006). Animal-assisted psychotherapy and equine-facilitated psychotherapy with traumatized children. In N. B. Webb (Ed.), Working with traumatized youth in child welfare (pp. 1164–1174). New York, NY: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burgon, H. L. (2011). ‘Queen of the world’: experiences of ‘at-risk’ young people participating in equine-assisted learning/therapy. Journal of Social Work Practice: Psychotherapeutic Approaches in Health, Welfare and the Community, 25(2), 165–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burgon, H. L. (2013). Horses, mindfulness and the natural environment: observations from a qualitative study with at-risk young people participating in therapeutic horsemanship. International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation, 17(2), 51–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. A., Mannarino, A. P., Deblinger, E. (Eds.) (2012). Trauma-focused CBT for children and adolescents: treatment applications. New York, NY: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook, A., Spinazzola, J., Ford, J., Lanktree, C., Blaustein, M., Cloitre, M., et al. (2005). Complex trauma in children and adolescents. Psychiatric Annals, 35(5), 390–398.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeLorenzi, L., Daire, A. P., & Bloom, Z. D. (2016). Predicting treatment attrition for child sexual abuse victims: the role of child trauma and co-occurring caregiver intimate partner violence. Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation, 7(10), 40–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Denworth, L. (2015). The social power of touch. Scientific American Mind, 26(4), 30–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J. D., Chapman, J., Connor, D. F., & Cruise, K. R. (2012). Complex trauma and aggression in secure juvenile justice settings. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 39(6), 694–724.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freund, L. S., Brown, O. J., & Buff, P. R. (2011). Equine-assisted activities and therapy for individuals with physical and developmental disabilities: an overview of research findings and the types of research currently being conducted. In P. McCardle, S. McCune, J. A. Griffin, L. Esposito, & L. S. Freund (Eds.), Animals in our lives: Human-animal interaction in family, community, and therapeutic settings (pp. 165–182). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jegatheesan, B., Beetz, A., Ormerod, E., Johnson, R., Fine, A., Yamazaki, K., et al. (2014). The international association of human–animal interaction organizations (IAHAIO) white paper on the definitions for animal assisted intervention and guidelines for wellness of animals involved. Retrieved from: http://www.iahaio.org/new/fileuploads/9313IAHAIO%20WHITE%20PAPER1%20TASK%20FORCE%20-%20FINAL%20REPORT.pdf

  • Kar, N. (2011). Cognitive behavioral therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder: A review. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 7, 167–181.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Karol, J. (2007). Applying a traditional individual psychotherapy model to equine-facilitate psychotherapy (EFP): theory and method. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 12(1), 77–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E. (1992). Research design in clinical psychology. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E. (2011). Evidence-based treatment research: advances, limitations, and next steps. American Psychologist, 66, 685–698.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E., & Blase, S. L. (2011). Rebooting psychotherapy research and practice to reduce the burden of mental illness. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6(1), 21–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kemp, K., Signal, T., Botros, H., Taylor, N., & Prentice, K. (2014). Equine-facilitated therapy with children and adolescents who have been sexually abused: a program evaluation study. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23, 558–566.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kinniburgh, K. J., Blaustein, M., Spinazzola, J., & van der Kolk, B. (2005). Attachment, self-regulation, and competency: a comprehensive intervention framework for children with complex trauma. Psychiatric Annals, 35(5), 424–430.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klontz, B. T., Bivens, A., Leinart, D., & Klontz, T. (2007). The effectiveness of equine-assisted experiential therapy: results of an open clinical trial. Society and Animals, 15, 257–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kronkosky Charitable Foundation. (2016). Research brief: child abuse treatment. Retrieved from Kronkosky Charitable Foundation: http://www.kronkosky.org/Research/Foundation-Research/Research-Briefs

  • Lonergan, M. (2014). Cognitive behavioral therapy for PTSD: the role of complex PTSD on treatment outcome. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 23(5), 494–512.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maujean, A., Pepping, C. A., & Kendall, E. (2015). A systematic review of randomized controlled trials of animal-assisted therapy on psychosocial outcomes. Anthrozoös, 28(1), 23–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Melson, G. F. (2000). Companion animals and the development of children: implications of the biophilia hypothesis. In A. Fine (Ed.), Handbook on animal-assisted therapy: Theoretical foundations and guidelines for practice (pp. 376–383). San Diego, CA: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCain, N. M., Mustard, F., & Shanker, S. (2007). Early years study 2 - Putting science into action. Toronto, ON: Council for Early Child Development. Available from: http://earlylearning.ubc.ca/documents/40/.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCullough, L., Risley-Curtiss, C., & Rorke, J. (2015). Equine facilitated psychotherapy: A pilot study of effect on posttraumatic stress symptoms in maltreated youth. Journal of Infant, Child, and Adolescent Psychotherapy, 14(2), 158–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merikangas, K. R., He, J., Burstein, M., Swanson, S. A., Avenevoli, S., Cui, L., et al. (2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: results from the national comorbidity study adolescent supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(10), 980–989.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, C. (2006). Dance/movement therapy in the light of trauma: research findings of a multidisciplinary project. In S. C. Koch, & I. Brauninger (Eds.), Advances in Dance/movement therapy: Theoretical perspectives and empirical findings (pp. 104–115). Berlin: Logos.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moreau, L. (2001). Outlaw riders: equine facilitated therapy with juvenile capital offenders. Reaching Today’s Youth, 5(2), 27–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagengast, S. L., Baun, M. M., Megel, M., & Leibowitz, J. M. (1997). The effects of the presence of a companion animal on physiological arousal and behavioral distress in children during a physical examination. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 12, 323–330.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, E. C., Heath, A. C., Madden, P. A. F., Cooper, M. L., Dinwiddie, S. H., & Bucholz, K. K., et al. (2002). Association between self-reported childhood sexual abuse and adverse psychosocial outcomes. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 39–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Odhayani, A. A., Watson, W. J., & Watson, L. (2013). Behavioural consequences of child abuse. Canadian Family Physician, 59(8), 831–836.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • O’Haire, M. E. (2015). Animal-assisted intervention for trauma: a systematic literature review. Frontiers in Psychology, 6(1121), 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olmert, M. D. (2009). Made for each other: the biology of the human-animal bond. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perrin, S., Meiser-Stedman, R., & Smith, P. (2005). The children’s revised impact of event scale (CRIES): validity as a screening instrument for PTSD. Behavioral and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 33, 1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perry, B. D. (2006). The neurosequential model of therapeutics: Applying principles of neuroscience to clinical work with traumatized and maltreated children. In N. B. Webb (Ed.), Working with traumatized youth in child welfare (pp. 27–52). New York, NY: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, B. D., & Hambrick, E. (2008). The neurosequential model of therapeutics (NMT). Reclaiming Children and Youth, 17(3), 38–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Porter-Wenzlaff, L. (2007). Finding their voice: developing emotional, cognitive, and behavioral congruence in female abuse survivors through equine facilitated therapy. Explore, 3(5), 529–534.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheidhacker, M. (2009). The horse: Real relational object and archetypal symbol. Retrieved from http://www.psychotherapeutischesreiten.de/Frameset.html

  • Schottenbauer, M. A., Glass, C. R., Arnkoff, D. B., Tendick, V., & Gray, S. H. (2008). Nonresponse and dropout rates in outcome studies on PTSD: review and methodological considerations. Psychiatry, 71, 134–168.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sexauer, A. M. (2011). Equine embrace: touch and the therapeutic encounter in equine facilitated psychotherapy from the perspective of the clinician. (Master’s thesis). Retrieved from Smith ScholarWorks (1014).

  • Shaffer, A., Huston, L., & Egeland, B. (2008). Identification of child maltreatment using prospective and self-report methodologies: A comparison of maltreatment incidence and relation to later psychopathology. Child Abuse and Neglect, 32, 682–692.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Souter, M. A., & Miller, M. D. (2007). Do animal-assisted activities effectively treat depression? A meta-analysis. Anthrozoös, 20(2), 167–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stambaugh, L.F., Ringeisen, H., Casanueva, C.C., Tueller, S., Smith, K.E., & Dolan, M. (2013). Adverse Childhood Experiences In Nscaw. OPRE Report #2013-26, Washington, DC: Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

  • Teicher, M. H., Anderson, C. M., & Polcari, A. (2012). Childhood maltreatment is associated with reduced volume in the hippocampal subfields CA3, dentate gyrus, and subiculum. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109(9), E536–E572.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terpin, J. L. (2004). Exploring the human-animal bond in an animal-assisted therapy program for at risk youth. Dissertation Abstracts International, 65(5), 2672B.

  • Trotter, K. (Ed.) (2012). Harnessing the power of equine-assisted counseling: adding animal assisted therapy to your practice. New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trotter, K. S., Chandler, C. K., Goodwin-Bond, D., & Casey, J. (2008). A comparative study of the efficacy of group equine assisted counseling with at-risk children and adolescents. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 3(3), 254–284.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children’s Bureau. (2016). Child maltreatment 2014. Available from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/research-data-technology/statistics-research/child-maltreatment

  • van der Hart, O., Steele, K., Boon, S., & Brown, P. (1993). The treatment of traumatic memories: synthesis, realization, & integration. Dissociation, 6(2/3), 162–180.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Kolk, B. (2005). Developmental trauma disorder: toward a rational diagnosis for children with complex trauma histories. Psychiatric Annals, 35(5), 401–408.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Kolk, B. (2014). The body keeps the score: Brain, mind, and body in the healing of trauma. NY: Penguin Books. ISBN: 9788-0-670-78593.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, L. M. (1994). Recall of childhood trauma: a prospective study of women’s memories of child sexual abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 1167–1176.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, K., Buultjens, M., Monfries, M., & Karimi, L. (2015). Equine-assisted psychotherapy for adolescents experiencing depression and/or anxiety: a therapist’s perspective. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 22(1), 16–33. doi:10.1177/1359104515572379.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This study was funded by the Horses and Humans in Research Foundation.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Clinical Sciences, Center for Animals and Public Policy, Tufts Institute for Human-Animal Interaction, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine and Jonathan M. Tisch College of Civic Life at Tufts University, 200 Westboro Road, North Grafton, MA, 01536, USA

    Megan Kiely Mueller

  2. Department of Social Work, Washburn University, 1700 SW College Ave., Topeka, KS, 66621, USA

    Leslie McCullough

Authors
  1. Megan Kiely Mueller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Leslie McCullough
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Megan Kiely Mueller.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

Megan Mueller formerly served on the Board of Directors of Touchstone Farm, one of the research study sites. Leslie McCullough is a consultant and EFP practitioner on a part-time basis at Hope and Healing Academy, the second research site.

Ethical Approval

All human subjects procedures for this study were approved by the Tufts University Institutional Review Board were conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments. Informed consent (parent/guardian consent and youth assent) was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. In addition, all applicable international, national, and/or institutional guidelines for the care and use of animals were followed, and study procedures were approved by the Tufts University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Mueller, M.K., McCullough, L. Effects of Equine-Facilitated Psychotherapy on Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms in Youth. J Child Fam Stud 26, 1164–1172 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0648-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0648-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation