Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Review of Nonverbal Communication in Parent–Child Relationships: Assessment and Intervention

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Nonverbal processes are crucial to parent–child communication, but are seldom the focus of therapeutic intervention once a child is over 12 months of age. This paper reviews the literature on nonverbal communication in parent–child interaction. We outline assessment tools and interventions designed to measure and improve nonverbal communication, identify gaps in publications describing existing practice, and discuss implications for further intervention research and development. We searched Medline and PsycInfo databases for theoretical and empirical articles that defined, conceptualized, measured and intervened with parent–child nonverbal interaction. Although we found a number of validated and reliable assessment measures, these were not routinely used to inform development of interventions that directly targeted nonverbal communication. Additionally, we identified very few interventions that met established criteria for evidence-based practice, that directly focused on nonverbal communication as a target for change. Interventions that were included in this review utilized play, creative arts mediums and psycho-education to work therapeutically with nonverbal processes. Given the importance of nonverbal communication for effective parenting and parent–child communication, we recommend that nonverbal communication is assessed and addressed explicitly as a core part of parent–child intervention, development and evaluation. Intervention development may additionally be informed by existing nonverbal assessment tools, many of which already have established good reliability and validity, and therefore may assist with intervention as well as outcome measurement.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillside, New Jersey: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5. Washington D.C: American Psychiatric Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Asla, N., de Paul, J., & Perez-Albeniz, A. (2011). Emotion recognition in fathers and mothers at high-risk for child physical abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 35, 712–721.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bagby, R. M., Parker, J. D. A., & Taylor, G. J. (1994). The twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale - I: item selection and cross-validation of the factor structure. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 38, 23–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bateman, A., & Fonagy, P. (2009). Randomized controlled trial of outpatient mentalization-based treatment versus structured clinical management for Borderline Personality Disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 166(12), 1335–1364.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beauchaine, T., Gatze-Kopp, L., & Mead, H. K. (2007). Polyvagal theory and developmental psychopathology: emotion dysregulation and conduct problems from preschool to adolescence. Biological Psychology, 74, 174–184.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berenbaum, H. (1996). Childhood abuse, alexithymia and personality disorder. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 41(6), 585–595.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boice, R., & Monti, P. M. (1982). Specification of nonverbal behaviours for clinical assessment. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 7(2), 79–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bojanowski, J. J., & Ammen, S. (2011). Discriminating between pre-versus post-Theraplay treatment Marschak interaction methods using the Marschak interaction method rating system. International Journal of Play Therapy, 20(1), 1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bugental, D. B. (2005). Interdisciplinary insights on nonverbal responses within attachment relationships. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 29(3), 177–186. doi:10.1007/s10919-005-4849-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell, B. M., & Bradley, R. H. (1984). Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) Inventory. Little Rock, Arkansas: University of Arkansas.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carton, J. S., & Carton, E. E. R. (1998). Nonverbal maternal warmth and children’s locus of control of reinforcement. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 22(1), 77–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carton, J. S., Kessler, E. A., & Pape, C. L. (1999). Nonverbal decoding skills and relationship wellbeing in adults. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 23(1), 91–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Casey, R. J., & Fuller, L. L. (1994). Maternal regulation of children’s emotions. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 18(1), 57–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coan, J. A., Ambadar, Z., & Ekman, P. (2007). Observer-based measurement of facial expression with the Facial Action Coding System. In J. A. Coan, J. J. B. Allen (Eds.), Handbook of Emotion Elicitation and Assessment (pp. 203–221). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coan, J. A., & Gottman, J. (2007). The specific affect coding system (SPAFF). In J. A. Coan, J. J. B. Allen (Eds.), Handbook of Emotion Elicitation and Assessment (pp. 267–285). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coatsworth, J. D., Duncan, L. G., Greenberg, M. T., & Nix, R. L. (2010). Changing parent’s mindfulness, child management skills and relationship quality with their youth: results from a randomized pilot intervention trial. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19, 203–217. doi:10.1007/s10826-009-9304-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coatsworth, J. D., Duncan, L. G., Nix, R. L., Greenberg, M. T., Gayles, J. G., Bamberger, K. T., & Demi, M. A. (2015). Integrating mindfulness with parent training: effects of the mindfulness-enhanced strengthening families program. Developmental Psychology, 51(1), 26–35. doi:10.1037/a0038212.supp.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crittenden, P. (1992). Quality of attachment in the preschool years. Development and Psychopathology, 4, 209–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crittenden, P. (2006). Care Index Manual. Miami, Florida: Family Relation Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crittenden, P. (2008). Raising Parents. United Kingdom: Willan Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crittenden, P. (2009). All in the family: integrating attachment and family systems theories. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 14(3), 389–409.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cuzzocrea, F., Barberis, N., Costa, S., & Larcan, R. (2015). Relationship between alexithymia, parenting style, and parental control. Psychological Reports: Relationships and Communications, 117(2), 580–596.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dawe, S., & Harnett, P. (2007). Reducing potential for child abuse among methadone-maintained parents: results from a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Substance Abuse, 32, 381–390.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, L. G., Coatsworth, J. D., Gayles, J. G., Geier, M. H., & Greenberg, M. T. (2015). Can mindful parenting be observed? Relations between observational ratings of mother-youth interactions and mothers’ self-report mindful parenting. Journal of Family Psychology, 29(2), 276–282. doi:10.1037/a0038857.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, L. G., Coatsworth, J. D., & Greenberg, M. T. (2009). A model of mindful parenting: implications for parent-child relationships and prevention research. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 12, 255–270.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dunsmore, J. C., Her, P., Halberstadt, A. G., & Perez-Rivera, M. B. (2009). Parents’ beliefs about emotions and children’s recognition of parents’ emotions. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 33, 121–140. doi:10.1007/s10919-008-0066-6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ehrlich, K. B., Richards, J. M., Lejuez, C. W., & Cassidy, J. (2015). When parents and adolescents disagree about disagreeing: observed parent-adolescent communication predicts informant discrepancies about conflict. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 1–10. doi:10.1111/jora.12197.

  • Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., & Spinrad, T. L. (1998). Parental socialization of emotion. Psychological Inquiry, 9(4), 241–273.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., Hofer, C., Spinrad, T. L., Gershoff, E. T., Valiente, C., Zhou, Q., & Darling, N. (2008). Understanding mother-adolescent conflict discussions: concurrent and across-time prediction from youth’s dispositions and parenting. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 73(2), 1–175. i-v, vii-viii.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. (1978). Facial Action Coding System: A Technique for the Measurement of Facial Movement. Palo Alto, California: Consulting Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellgring, H., & Scherer, K. R. (1996). Vocal indicators of mood change in depression. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 20(2), 83–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elliot, R., Campbell, L., Hunter, M., Cooper, G., Melville, J., McCabe, K., & Loughland, C. (2013). When I look into my baby’s eyes…infant emotion recognition by mothers with borderline personality disorder. Infant Mental Health Journal, 35(1), 21–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eyberg, S. M., Nelson, M. M., Duke, M., & Boggs, S. R. (1981). Manual for the dyadic parent-child interaction coding system. Oregon: Oregon Health Sciences University. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.510.7475&rep=rep1&type=pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flay, B., Biglan, A., Boruch, R. F., Castro, F. G., Gottfredson, D., Kellam, S., & Ji, P. (2005). Standards of evidence: criteria for efficacy, effectiveness and dissemination. Prevention Science, 6(3), 151–175.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fonagy, P., & Target, M. (1997). Attachment and reflective function: their role in self-organization. Development and Psychopathology, 9(4), 679.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilleland, J., Suveg, C., Jacob, M. L., & Thomassin, K. (2009). Understanding the medically unexplained: emotional and familial influences on children’s somatic functioning. Child: Care, Health and Development, 35(3), 383–390. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2009.00950.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gottman, J., Fainsilber Katz, L., & Hooven, C. (1996). Parental meta-emotion philosophy and the emotional life of families: theoretical models and preliminary data. Journal of Family Psychology, 10(3), 243–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gottman, J., Fainsilber Katz, L., & Hooven, C. (1997). Meta-Emotion: How Families Communicate Emotionally. New York: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gottman, J., & Krokoff, L. J. (1989). Marital interaction and satisfaction: a longitudinal view. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57(1), 47–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grebelsky-Lichtman, T. (2014). Parental patterns of cooperation in parent-child interactions: the relationship between nonverbal and verbal communication. Human Communication Research, 40, 1–29. doi:10.1111/hcre.12014.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greco, L. A., Sorrell, J. T., & McNeil, C. B. (2001). Understanding manual-based behavior therapy: some theoretical foundations of parent-child interaction therapy. Child and Family Behavior Therapy, 23(4), 21–36. doi:10.1300/J019v23n04_02.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Halberstadt, A. G., Parker, A. E., & Castro, V. L. (2013). Nonverbal communication: developmental perspectives. In J. A. Hall & M. L. Knapp (Eds.), Nonverbal communication (pp. 93–105). De Gruyter: Retrieved from http://www.ebrary.com.

  • Havighurst, S., Duncombe, M., Frankling, E., Holland, K., Kehoe, C. K., & Stargatt, R. (2015). An emotion-focused early intervention for children with emerging conduct problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(4), 749–760.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Havighurst, S., & Harley, A. E. (2007). Tuning in to Kids. Melbourne: University of Melbourne.

    Google Scholar 

  • Havighurst, S., Harley, A. E., Kehoe, C. K., & Pizarro, E. (2012). Tuning in to Teens Program Manual. Melbourne: University of Melbourne.

    Google Scholar 

  • Havighurst, S., Wilson, K. R., Harley, A. E., Prior, M., & Kehoe, C. K. (2010). Tuning in to Kids: improving emotion socialization practices in parents of preschool children - findings from a community trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(12), 1342–1350.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Havighurst, S., Wilson, K. R., Kehoe, C. K., Efron, D., & Prior, M. (2013). Reducing young children’s behaviour problems using an emotion coaching program. Child Psychiatry Human Development, 44(2), 247–264.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heatherington, L., Friedlander, M. L., Diamond, G., Escudero, V., & Pinsof, W. (2015). 25 years of systematic therapies research: progress and promise. Psychotherapy Research, 25(3), 348–364.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hemphill, S. A., & Littlefield, L. (2001). Evaluation of a short-term group therapy program for children with behavior problems and their parents. Behavior Research and Therapy, 39, 823–841.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hitchcock, D., Ammen, S., O’Connor, K., & Backman, T. L. (2008). Validating the Marschak Interaction Method Rating System with Adolescent Mother-Child Dyads. International Journal of Play Therapy, 17(1), 24–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hodgins, H. S., & Koestner, R. (1993). The origins of nonverbal sensitivity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19(4), 466–473.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hollenstein, T., & Lewis, M. D. (2006). A state space analysis of emotion and flexibility in parent-child interactions. Emotion, 6(4), 656–662.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobsen, S. L. (2012). Music therapy assessment and development of parental competencies in families where children have experienced emotional neglect: An investigation of the reliability and validity of the tool, Assessment of parenting competencies. (Doctoral Thesis, Alborg University, Denmark). Retrieved from http://vbn.aau.dk/en/publications/music-therapy-assessment-and-development-of-parental-competences-in-families-where-children-have-experienced-emotional-neglect(f3f4480f-f313-476a-b009-95c8300558e9).html.

  • Jacobsen, S. L., & Killen, K. (2015). Clinical application of music therapy assessment within the field of child protection. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 24(2), 148–166. doi:10.1080/08098131.2014.908943.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobsen, S. L., McKinney, C. H., & Holck, U. (2014). Effects of a dyadic music therapy intervention on parent-child interaction, parent stress, and parent-child relationship in families with emotionally neglected children: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Music Therapy, 51(4), 310–332. doi:10.1093/jmt/thu028.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jernberg, A., & Booth, P. (2001). Theraplay. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kahlbaugh, P. E., & Haviland, J. M. (1994). Nonverbal communication between parents and adolescents: a study of approach and avoidance behaviors. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 18(1), 91–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Katz, L. F., & Gottman, J. M. (1995). Vagal tone protects children from marital conflict. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 83–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kehoe, C. K., Havighurst, S., & Harley, A. E. (2014). Tuning in to Teens: improving parent emotion socialization to reduce youth internalizing difficulties. Social Development, 23(2), 413–431.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kestenberg, J. A., Loman, S., Lewis, P., & Sossin, A. M. (1996). The meaning of movement: Developmental and clincial perspectives of the Kestenberg movement profile. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Gordon and Breach.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kliewer, W., Borre, A., Wright, A. W., Jaggi, L., Drazdowski, T., & Zaharakis, N. (2015). Parental emotional competence and parenting in low-income families with adolescents. Journal of Family Psychology. doi:10.1037/fam0000136.

  • Lemche, E., Klann-Delius, G., Koch, R., & Joraschky, P. (2004). Mentalizing language development in a longitudinal attachment sample: implications for alexithymia. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 73(6), 366–374.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, A., & Van Horn, P. (2005). Don’t Hit My Mommy!. Washington D.C.: Zero to Three Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, A., Weston, D. R., & Pawl, J. H. (1991). Preventative intervention and outcome with anxiously attached dyads. Child Development, 62(1), 199–209.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, A. F., & Van Horn, P. (2008). Psychotherapy with Infants and Young Children. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, A. F., Van Horn, P., & Ghosh Ippen, C. (2005). Toward evidence-based treatment: child-parent psychotherapy with preschoolers exposed to marital violence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(12), 1241–1248.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lindahl, K. M., & Malik, N. M. (2000). System for Coding Interactions and Family Functioning (SCIFF). Coral Gables, Florida: University of Miami. Retrieved from. https://www.psy.miami.edu/media/college-of-arts-and-sciences/psychology/documents/faculty/publications/sciff.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lumley, M. A., Neely, L. C., & Burger, A. J. (2007). The assessment of alexithymia in medical settings: implications for understanding and treating health problems. Journal of Personality Assessment, 89(3), 230–246.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Magill-Evans, J., Koning, C., Cameron-Sadava, A., & Manyk, K. (1995). The child and adolescent social perception measure. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 19(3), 151–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Main, M., & Cassidy, J. (1988). Categories of response to reunion with the parent at age 6: Predictable from infant attachment classifications and stable over a 1-month period. Developmental Psychology, 24(3), 415–426.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mandal, M. K., & Ambady, N. (2004). Laterality of facial expressions of emotions: universal and culture-specific influences. Behavioral Neurology, 15, 23–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McClure, E. B., & Nowicki, S. (2001). Associations between social anxiety and nonverbal processing skill in preadolescent boys and girls. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 25(1), 3–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Melby, J. N., & Conger, R. D. (2001). The Iowa Family Interaction Rating Scales: Instrument Summary. In P. Krig, K. M. Lindahl (Eds.), Family Observational Coding Systems: Resources for Systemic Research (pp. 33–58). New Jersey, USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moed, A., Gershoff, E. T., Eisenberg, N., Hofer, C., Losoya, S., Spinrad, T. L., & Liew, J. (2014). Parent-adolescent conflict as sequences of reciprocal negative emotion: links with conflict resolution and adolescents’ behavior problems. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. doi:10.1007/s10964-014-0209-5.

  • Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., Myers, S. S., & Robinson, L. R. (2007). The role of the family context in the development of emotion regulation. Social Development, 16(2), 361–388.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nijssens, L., Luyten, P., & Bales, D. L. (2012). Mentalization-based treatment for parents (MBT-P) with borderline personality disorder and their infants. In M. Midgley, I. Vrouva (Eds.), Minding the Child: Mentalization-Based Interventions with Children, Young People and their Families (pp. 79–97). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norbury, C. F. (2014). Practitioner review: Social (pragmatic) communication disorder conceptualization, evidence and clinical implications. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(3), 204–216. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12154.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nowicki, S., & Duke, M. (1994). Individual differences in the nonverbal communication of affect: the diagnostic analysis of nonverbal accuracy scale. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 18(1), 9–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nowicki, S. & Duke, M. (2013). Accuracy in interpreting nonverbal cues. In J. A. Hall & M. L. Knapp (Eds.), Nonverbal communication (pp. 441–470): De Gruyter: Retrieved from http://www.ebrary.com.

  • O’Connor, K., Ammen, S., Hitchcock, D., & Backman, T. L. (2001). The Marschak Interaction Method Rating System Manual. California: Alliant International University. California School of Professional Psychology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pally, R. (2001). A primary role for nonverbal communication in psychoanalysis. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 21(1), 71–93. doi:10.1080/07351692109348924.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, A. M., Cline, R. J. W., Foster, T. S., Penner, L. A., Parrott, R. L., Keller, C. M.,… Albrecht, T. L. (2007). Parents’ interpersonal distance and touch behaviour and child pain and distress during painful pediatric oncology procedures. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 31, 79–97. doi:10.1007/s10919-007-0023-9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Porges, S. (2001). The polyvagal theory: phylogenetic substrates of a social nervous system. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 42, 123–146.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Privitera, M. R. (2013). Nonverbal behavior and psychiatric observation. In D. Matsumoto, M. G. Frank, H. S. Hwang (Eds.), Nonverbal communication: Science and application (pp. 247–258). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, R., Hall, J. A., DiMatteo, M. R., Rogers, P. L., & Archer, D. (1979). Sensitivity to nonverbal communication: The PONS test. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell, R. L., Stokes, J., Jones, M. E., Czogalik, D., & Rohleder, L. (1993). The role of nonverbal sensitivity in childhood psychopathology. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 17(1), 69–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samur, D., Tops, M., Schlinkert, C., Quirin, M., Cuijpers, P., & Koole, S. L. (2013). Four decades of research on alexithymia: moving toward clinical applications. Frontiers in Psychology, 4(article 961), 1–4. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00861.

    Google Scholar 

  • Savage-McGlynn, E., Redshaw, M., Heron, J., Stein, A., Quigley, M. A., Evans, J., & Gray, R. (2015). Mechanisms of resilience in children of mothers who self-report with depressive symptoms in the first postnatal year. PLOS ONE, 10(11), e0142898 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0142898.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schachner, D. A., Shaver, P., & Mikulincer, M. (2005). Patterns of nonverbal behavior and sensitivity in the context of attachment relationships. Journal of Nonverbal Behaviour, 29(3), 141–169. doi:10.1007/s10919-005-4847-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schechter, D. S., Myers, M. M., Brunelli, S. A., & Coates, S. W. (2006). Traumatized mothers can change their minds about their toddlers: understanding how a novel use of videofeedback supports positive change of maternal attributions. Infant Mental Health Journal, 27(5), 429–447.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schechter, D. S., Suardi, F., Manini, A., Cordero, M. I., Rossignol, A. S., Merminod, G., & Serpa, S. R. (2015). How do maternal PTSD and alexithymia interact to impact maternal behavior? Child Psychiatry Human Development, 46, 406–417. doi:10.1007/s10578-014-0480-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scherer, K. R., Clark-Polner, E., & Mortillaro, M. (2011). In the eye of the beholder? Universality and cultural specificity in the expression and perception of emotion. International Journal of Psychology, 46(6), 401–435.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schore, A. N. (2013). Relational trauma, brain development, and dissociation. In J. D. Ford, C. A. Courtois (Eds.), Treating Complex Traumatic Stress Disorders in Children and Adolescents. New York: Guilford Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seltzer, L. J., Ziegler, T. E., & Pollak, S. D. (2010). Social vocalizations can release oxytocin in humans. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Biological Sciences, 277, 2661–2666.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharp, C., & Venta, A. (2012). Mentalizing problems in children and adolescents. In M. Midgley, I. Vrouva (Eds.), Minding the child: Mentalization-based interventions with children, young people and their families (pp. 35–53). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siu, A. F. Y. (2009). Theraplay in the Chinese world: an intervention for Hong Kong children with internalizing problems. International Journal of Play Therapy, 18(1), 1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siu, A. F. Y. (2014). Effectiveness of group theraplay on enhancing social skills among children with developmental disabiities. International Journal of Play Therapy, 23(4), 187–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skowron, E. A., Benjamin, L. S., Cipriano-Essel, E., Pincus, A. L., & Van Ryzin, M. J. (2013). Cardiac vagal tone and quality of parenting show concurrent and time-ordered associations that diverge in abusive, neglectful and non-maltreating mothers. Couple and Family Psychology: Research and Practice, 2(2), 95–115.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Spitzer, C., Siebel-Jurges, U., Barnow, S., Grabe, H. J., & Freyberger, H. J. (2005). Alexithymia and interpersonal problems. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 74, 240–246. doi:10.1159/000085148.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stubbs, J., Crosby, L., Forgatch, M. S., & Capaldi, D. M. (1998). Family and Peer Process Code: A Synthesis of Three Oregon Social Learning Center Behavior Codes. Eugene, Oregon: Social Learning Centre.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, G. J., & Bagby, R. M. (2004). New trends in alexithymia research. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 73(2), 68–77.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Teti, D., & Gelfand, D. M. (1997). The preschool assessment of attachment: construct validity in a sample of depressed and nondepressed families. Development and Psychopathology, 9(3), 517–536.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thorberg, F. A., Young, R. M., Sullivan, K. A., & Lyvers, M. (2011). Parental bonding and alexithymia: a meta-analysis. European Psychiatry, 26, 187–193.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Totsika, V., & Sylva, K. (2004). The home observation for measurement of the environment revisited. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 9(1), 25–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trees, A. R. (2005). Nonverbal and verbal approach behaviors related to reported and perceived support seeking goals in conversations. Western Journal of Communication, 69(4), 319–337.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trehub, S., Hannon, E., & Schachner, A. (2010). Perspectives on music and affect in the early years. In P. N. Juslin, J. A. Sloboda (Eds.), Handbook of Music and Emotion (pp. 646–668). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tulipani, C., Morelli, F., Spedicato, M. R., Maiello, E., Todarello, O., & Porcelli, P. (2010). Alexithymia and cancer pain: the effect of psychological intervention. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 79, 156–163.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Beek, Y., & Dubas, J. S. (2008). Decoding basic and non-basic facial expressions and depressive symptoms in late childhood and adolescence. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 32, 53–64. doi:10.1007/s10919-007-0041-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vaughn, B., & Waters, E. (1990). Attachment behavior at home and in the laboratory: Q-Sort observations and Strange Situation Classifications of one-year-olds. Child Development, 61(6), 1965–1973.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waters, E., & Deane, K. (1985). Defining and assessing individual differences in attachment relationships: Q-methodology and the organisation of behavior in infancy and early childhood. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50(1/2), 41–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wettig, G., Coleman, A. R., & Geider, F. J. (2011). Eavluating the effectiveness of theraplay in teaching shy, socially withdrawn children. International Journal of Play Therapy, 20(1), 26–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, K. R., Havighurst, S., & Harley, A. E. (2012). Tuning in to kids: an effectiveness trial of a parenting program targeting emotion socialization of preschoolers. Journal of Family Psychology, 26(1), 56–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zeman, J., & Shipman, K. (1998). Influence of social context on children’s affect regulation: a functionalist perspective. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 22(3), 141–165.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zilberstein, K. (2014). Neurocognitive considerations in the treatment of attachment and complex trauma in children. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 19(3), 336–354.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ziv, Y., Cassidy, J., & Ramos-Marcuse, F. (2002). Adolescent-Parent Conflict Interaction Coding System. Maryland: University of Maryland.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Mindful: Centre for Training and Research in Developmental Health, Department of Psychiatry, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

    Vivienne M. Colegrove & Sophie S. Havighurst

Authors
  1. Vivienne M. Colegrove
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sophie S. Havighurst
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Vivienne M. Colegrove.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Colegrove, V.M., Havighurst, S.S. Review of Nonverbal Communication in Parent–Child Relationships: Assessment and Intervention. J Child Fam Stud 26, 574–590 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0563-x

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0563-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation