Abstract
According to attachment theory, the appraisal that an attachment figure is available, caring, and responsive facilitates psychological and social adjustment. Although the theory is regarded as a lifespan theory of development, little research has addressed the correlates of attachment in late adulthood. Symbolic attachment figures such as God may be particularly important for older adults because they have often lost loved ones, including former attachment figures. This study tested whether secure attachment to God was associated with psychological flourishing in older adults. A community sample of 106 adults (mean age = 75) completed measures of attachment to God and psychological well-being. In regression analyses controlling for age, sex, education, and self-rated religiosity, secure (non-anxious) attachment to God predicted positive relationships with others, self-acceptance, environmental mastery, and personal growth. Avoidant attachment did not predict any of the well-being indices. Results are discussed in the context of attachment theory and positive psychology.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Beck, R., & McDonald, A. (2004). Attachment to god: The attachment to god inventory, tests of working model correspondence, and an exploration of faith group differences. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 32, 92–103.
Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Vol. 2. Separation: Anxiety and anger. New York: Basic.
Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachment and healthy human development. London: Routledge.
Bradshaw, M., Ellison, C. G., & Marcum, J. (2010). Attachment to god, images of god, and psychological distress in a nationwide sample of presbyterians. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 20, 130–147.
Brennan, K. A., Clark, C. L., & Shaver, P. R. (1998). Self-report measurement of adult attachment: An integrative overview. In J. A. Simpson & W. S. Rholes (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 46–76). New York: Guilford Press.
Brown, S. L., Nesse, R. M., House, J. S., & Utz, R. L. (2004). Religion and emotional compensation: Results from a prospective study of widowhood. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1165–1174.
Cassidy, J., & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.). (2008). Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications. New York: Guilford.
Cicerelli, V. G. (2004). God as the ultimate attachment figure for older adults. Attachment and Human Development, 6, 371–388.
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155–159.
Consedine, N. S., & Magai, C. (2003). Attachment and emotion experience in later life: The view from emotions theory. Attachment and Human Development, 5, 165–187.
Depp, C. A., & Jeste, D. V. (2006). Definitions and predictors of successful aging: A comprehensive review of larger quantitative studies. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 14, 6–20.
Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 542–575.
George, C., Kaplan, N., & Main, M. (1985). The adult attachment interview (2nd ed.). Berkeley: Unpublished manuscript, University of California.
Gillath, O., Johnson, D. K., Selcuk, E., & Teel, C. (2011). Comparing old and young adults as they cope with life transitions: The links between social network management skills and attachment style to depression. Clinical Gerontologist, 34, 251–265.
Hernandez, G., Salerno, J. M., & Bottoms, B. L. (2010). Attachment to god, spiritual coping, and alcohol use. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 20, 97–108.
Homan, K. J., & Boyatzis, C. J. (2010). The protective role of attachment to god against eating disorder risk factors: Concurrent and prospective evidence. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment and Prevention, 18, 1–20.
Kirkpatrick, L. A. (1992). An attachment-theory approach to the psychology of religion. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 2, 3–28.
Kirkpatrick, L. A. (2005). Attachment, evolution, and the psychology of religion. New York: Guilford.
Kirkpatrick, L. A., & Shaver, P. R. (1992). An attachment-theoretical approach to romantic love and religious belief. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 266–275.
Leary, M. R., & Baumeister, R. F. (2000). The nature and function of self-esteem: Sociometer theory. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 32, pp. 2–51). San Diego: Academic Press.
Lo, C., Lin, J., Gagliese, L., Zimmermann, C., Mikulincer, M., & Rodin, G. (2010). Age and depression in patients with metastatic cancer: The protective effects of attachment security and spiritual wellbeing. Ageing and Society, 30, 325–336.
Magai, C., & Consedine, N. S. (2004). Introduction to the special issue: Attachment and aging. Attachment and Human Development, 6, 349–351.
Mikulincer, M. (1995). Attachment style and the mental representation of the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1203–1215.
Mikulincer, M., & Florian, V. (1998). The relationship between adult attachment styles and emotional and cognitive reactions to stressful events. In J. A. Simpson & W. S. Rholes (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 143–165). New York: Guilford.
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2007). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change. New York: Guilford.
Miner, M. (2009). The impact of child-parent attachment, attachment to God, and religious orientation on psychological adjustment. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 37, 114–124.
Montague, D. P. F., Magai, C., Consedine, N. S., & Gillespie, M. (2003). Attachment in African-American and European-American older adults: The roles of early life socialization and religiosity. Attachment and Human Development, 5, 188–214.
Powell, L. H., Shahabi, L., & Thoresen, C. E. (2003). Religion and spirituality: Linkages to physical health. American Psychologist, 58, 36–52.
Reiner, S. R., Anderson, T. L., Lewis-Hall, M. E., & Hall, T. (2010). Adult attachment, god attachment and gender in relation to perceived stress. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 38, 175–185.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141–166.
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069–1081.
Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being, revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 719–727.
Schultz-Hipp, P. L. (2001). Do spirituality and religiosity increase with age? In D. O. Moberg (Ed.), Aging and spirituality (pp. 85–97). New York: The Haworth Pastoral Press.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2012). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. New York: Free Press.
Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., Carlson, E. A., & Collins, W. A. (2005). The development of the person: The Minnesota study of risk and adaptation from birth to adulthood. New York: Guilford.
Uchino, B. N., Uno, D., & Holt-Lunstad, J. (1999). Social support, physiological processes, and health. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 8, 145–148.
Wensauer, M., & Grossmann, K. E. (1995). Quality of attachment representation, social integration, and use of network resources in old age. Zeitschrift für Gerontologie und Geriatrie, 28, 444–456.
Wood, A. M., Joseph, S., & Maltby, J. (2009). Gratitude predicts psychological well-being above the big five facets. Personality and Individual Differences, 46, 443–447.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank the following students for their help with an earlier version of this study (in alphabetical order): Rachel Bailey, Grace Rieman, Kelsey Wilson, and Kristen Wolfe.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Homan, K.J. Symbolic Attachment Security and Eudemonic Well-Being in Older Adults. J Adult Dev 21, 89–95 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-013-9182-6
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-013-9182-6