Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the severity of behavioral and emotional problems among adolescents with poor and typical single word reading ability (N = 188) recruited from public schools and followed for a median of 2.4 years. Youth and parents were repeatedly assessed to obtain information regarding the severity and course of symptoms (depression, anxiety, somatic complaints, aggression, delinquent behaviors, inattention), controlling for demographic variables and diagnosis of ADHD. After adjustment for demographic variables and ADHD, poor readers reported higher levels of depression, trait anxiety, and somatic complaints than typical readers, but there were no differences in reported self-reported delinquent or aggressive behaviors. Parent reports indicated no differences in depression, anxiety or aggression between the two groups but indicated more inattention, somatic complaints, and delinquent behaviors for the poor readers. School and health professionals should carefully assess youth with poor reading for behavioral and emotional symptoms and provide services when indicated.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Achenbach, T. M. (1991a). The integrative guide for 1991 CBCL/4-18, YSR, TRF profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont Department of Psychology.
Achenbach, T. M. (1991b). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/4-18 and 1991 Profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont Department of Psychology.
Achenbach, T. M. (1991c). Manual for the Youth Self-Report and 1991 Profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont Department of Psychology.
Ambrosini, P. J. (2000). Historical development and present status of the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children (K-SADS). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 49–58.
Ambrosini, P. J., Metz, C., Bianchi, M. D., Rabinovich, H., & Undie, A. (1991). Concurrent validity and psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory in outpatient adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 51–57.
American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Angold, A., Costello, E., Farmer, E., Burns, B., & Erkanli, A. (1999). Impaired but undiagnosed. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 129–137.
August, G. J., & Garfinkel, B. D. (1990). Comorbidity of ADHD and reading disability among clinic-referred children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 18, 29–45.
Beck, A., Steer, R., & Garbin, M. (1988). Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: Twenty-five years of evaluation. Clinical Psychology Review, 8, 77–100.
Beitchman, J. H., Wilson, B. B., Johnson, C. J., Atkinson, L., Young, A., Adlaf, E., et al. (2001). Fourteen-year follow-up of speech/language-impaired and control children: Psychiatric outcome. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 75–82.
Beitchman, J. H., Wilson, B. B., Brownlie, E. B., Walters, H., Inglis, A., & Lancee, W. (1996). Long-term consistency in speech/language profiles: II. Behavioral, emotional, and social outcomes. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 815–825.
Bird, H., Gould, M., & Staghezza, B. (1993). Patterns of diagnostic comorbidity in a community sample of children aged 9 through 16 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 361–368.
Boetsch, E., Green, P., & Pennington, B. (1996). Psychosocial correlates of dyslexia across the life span. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 539–562.
Carter, C. L., & Dacey, C. M. (1996). Validity of the Beck Depression Inventory, MMPI, and Rorschach in assessing adolescent depression. Journal of Adolescence, 19, 223–231.
Casey, R., Levy, S., Brown, K., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1992). Impaired emotional health in children with mild reading disability. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 13, 256–260.
Cohen, N. J., Davine, M., Horodezky, N., Lipsettm, L., & Isaacson, L. (1993). Unsuspected language impairment in psychiatrically disturbed children: Prevalence and language and behavioral characteristics. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 595–603.
Connor, D., Edwards, G., Fletcher, K., Baird, J., Barkley, R., & Steingold, R. (2003). Correlates of comorbid psychopathology in children with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 193–200.
Cornwall, A., & Bawden, H. N. (1992). Reading disabilities and aggression: A critical review. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 281–288.
Costello, E. J., Angold, A., Burns, B. J., Stangl, D. K., Tweed, D. L., Erkanli, A., et al. (1996). The Great Smoky Mountains Study of Youth. Goals, design, methods, and the prevalence of DSM-III-R disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 1129–1136.
Denckla, M., & Rudel, R. G. (1976). Rapid automatized naming (RAN): Dyslexia differentiated from other learning disabilities. Neuropsychologia, 14, 471–479.
Dykman, R. A., & Ackerman, P. T. (1991). ADD and specific reading disability: Separate but often overlapping disorders. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24, 96–103.
Faraone, S., Biederman, J., & Friedman, B. (2000). Validity of DSM-IV subtypes of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A family study perspective. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 300–307.
Faraone, S., Biederman, J., & Milberger, S. (1995) How reliable are maternal reports of their children’s psychopathology? One-year recall of psychiatric diagnoses of ADHD children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1001–1008.
Fergusson, D., & Lynskey, M. (1997). Early reading difficulties and later conduct problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 899–907.
Flowers, L., Meyer, M., Lovato, J., Wood, F., & Felton, R. (2001). Does third grade discrepancy status predict the course of reading development? Annals of Dyslexia, 51, 49–74.
Fristad, M. A., Topolosky, S., Weller, E. B., & Weller, R. A. (1992). Depression and learning disabilities in children. Journal of Affective Disorders, 26, 53–58.
Goldstein, D., Paul, G. G., & Sanfilippo-Cohn, S. (1985). Depression and achievement in subgroups of children with learning disabilities. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 6, 263–275.
Goldston, D. B., Daniel, S. S., Reboussin, D. M., Reboussin, B. A., Frazier, P. H., & Kelley, A. E. (1999). Suicide attempts among formerly hospitalized adolescents: A prospective naturalistic study of risk during the first 5 years after discharge. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(6), 660–671.
Grigorenko, E. L., Wood, F. B., Meyer, M. S., & Pauls, D. L. (2000). The chromosome 6p influences on different dyslexia-related cognitive processes: Further confirmation. American Journal of Human Genetics, 66, 715–723.
Hall, C., & Haws, D. (1989). Depressive symptomatology in learning-disabled and non-learning-disabled students. Psychology in the Schools, 26, 359–364.
Heiervang, E., Stevenson, J., Lund, A., & Hugdahl, K. (2001). Behaviour problems in children with dyslexia. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 55, 251–256.
Hollingshead, A. (1957). Two factor index of social position. Unpublished report.
Kashani, J., Orvaschel, H., Burk, J., & Reid, J. (1985). Informant variance: The issue of parent–child disagreement. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 24, 437–441.
Konstantareas, M., & Homatidis, S. (1989). Parental perception of learning-disabled children’s adjustment problems and related stress. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 17, 177–186.
Kovacs, M., Feinberg, T. L., Crouse-Novak, M. A., Paulauskas, S. L., & Finkelstein, R. (1984). Depressive disorders in childhood: I. A longitudinal prospective study of characteristics and recovery. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 229–237.
Kovacs, M., Feinberg, T. L., Crouse-Novak, M., Paulauskas, S. L., Pollock, M., & Finkelstein, R. (1984). Depressive disorders in childhood: II. A longitudinal study of the risk for a subsequent major depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 643–649.
Laird, N. M., & Ware, J. H. (1982). Random-effects models for longitudinal data. Biometrics, 38, 963–974.
Lindamood, C., & Lindamood, P. (1971). Lindamood auditory conceptualization test. Boston: Teaching Resources Corp.
Lyon, G., Fletcher, J., Torgeson, J., Shaywitz, S., & Chhabra, V. (2004). Preventing and remediating reading failure: A response to Allington. Educational Leadership, 61, 86–88.
Maag, J. W., & Behrens, J. T. (1989). Depression and cognitive self-statements of learning disabled and seriously emotionally disturbed adolescents. Journal of Special Education, 23, 17–27.
Margalit, M., & Raviv, A. (1984). LD’s expression of anxiety in terms of minor somatic complaints. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17, 226–228.
Margalit, M., & Shulman, S. (1986). Autonomy perceptions and anxiety expressions of learning disabled adolescents. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 291–293.
Maughan, B. (1995). Annotation: Long-term outcomes of developmental reading problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 36, 357–371.
Maughan, B., Pickles, A., Hagell, A., Rutter, M., & Yule, W. (1996). Reading problems and antisocial behaviour: Developmental trends in comorbidity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 405–518.
Maughan, B., Rowe, R., Loeber, R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (2003). Reading problems and depressed mood. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 219–229.
Orvaschel, H., & Puig-Antich, P. (1994). The Kiddie-SADS-E (5th revision). Ft. Lauderdale, FL: Center for Psychological Studies, Nova Southeastern University.
Paget, K. D., & Reynolds, C. R. (1984). Dimensions, levels and reliabilities on the Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale with learning disabled children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17, 137–141.
Pennington, B. F., Groisser, D., & Welsh, M. C. (1993). Contrasting cognitive deficits in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder versus reading disability. Developmental Psychology, 29, 511–523.
Pisecco, S., Baker, D. B., Silva, P. A., & Brooke, M. (2001). Boys with reading disabilities and/or ADHD: Distinctions in early childhood. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 98–106.
Richardson, E., & DiBenedetto, B. (1985). Decoding skills test. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.
Rodriguez, C. M., & Routh, D. K. (1989). Depression, anxiety, and attributional style in learning-disabled and non-learning-disabled children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 18, 299–304.
Rosner, J. (1979). Auditory analysis skills book & basic decoding skillbook. New York, NY: Walker Educational Book Corporation.
Rutter, M., Caspi, A., Fergusson, D., Horwood, L. J., Goodman, R., Maughan, B., et al. (2004). Sex differences in developmental reading disability: New findings from four epidemiological studies. Journal of the American Medical Association, 291, 2007–2012.
Rutter, M., & Yule, W. (1970). Reading retardation and antisocial behaviour—The nature of the association. In M. Rutter, J. Tizard, & K. Whitmore (Eds.), Education, health and behaviour (pp. 240–255). London: Longmans.
Schachar, R., Mota, V., Logan, G., Tannock, R., & Klim, P. (2000). Confirmation of an inhibitory control deficit in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 227–235.
Semrud-Clikeman, M., Biederman, J., Sprich-Buckminster, S., Lehman, B. K., Faraone, S. V., & Norman, D. (1992). Comorbidity between ADDH and learning disability: A review and report in a clinically referred sample. Journal of the Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 439–448.
Shaffer, D., Fisher, P., Dulcan, M. K., Davies, M., Piacentini, J., Schwab-Stone, M., et al. (1996). The NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version 2.3: Description, acceptability, prevalence rates, and performance in the MECA study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 865–877.
Spielberger, C., Gorsuch, R., Lushene, R., Vagg, P., & Jacobs, G. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Steer, R., & Beck, A. (1988). Use of the Beck Depression Inventory, Hopelessness Scale, Scale for Suicidal Ideation, and Suicidal Intent Scale with adolescents. Advances in Adolescent Mental Health, 3, 219–231.
Steubing, K., Fletcher, J., LeDoux, J., Lyon, G., Shaywitz, S., & Shaywitz, B. (2002). Validity of IQ-discrepancy classifications of reading disabilities: A meta-analysis. American Educational Research Journal, 39, 469–518.
Svetaz, M. V., Ireland, M., & Blum, R. (2000). Adolescents with learning disabilities: Risk and protective factors associated with emotional well-being: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Journal of Adolescent Health, 27, 340-348.
Tarnowski, K. J., Prinz, R. J., & Ney, S. M. (1986). Comparative analysis of attentional deficits in hyperactive and learning-disabled children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 341–345.
Wilens, T., Biederman, J., Brown, S., Tanguay, S., Monuteaux, M., Blake, C., et al. (2002). Psychiatric comorbidity and functioning in clinically referred preschool children and school-age youths with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 262–268.
Willcutt, E. G., Olson, R. K., Pennington, B. F., Boada, R., Ogline, J. S., Tunick, R. A., et al. (2001). A comparison of the cognitive deficits in reading disability and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 157–172.
Willcutt, E. G., & Pennington, B. F. (2000a). Comorbidity of reading disability and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity disorder: Differences by gender and subtype. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 179–191.
Willcutt, E. G., & Pennington, B. F. (2000b). Psychiatric comorbidity in children and adolescents with reading disability. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 1039–1048.
Williams, S., & McGee, R. (1994). Reading attainment and juvenile delinquency. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 441–459.
Wood, F. B., & Felton, R. H. (1994). Separate linguistic and attentional factors in the development of reading. Topics in Language Disorders, 14(4), 42–57.
Woodcock, R. W., & Johnson, M. G. (1990). Woodcock Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery-Revised. Allen, TX: DLM Teaching Resources.
Wright-Strawderman, C., & Watson, B. L. (1992). The prevalence of depressive symptoms in children with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 258–264.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Arnold, E.M., Goldston, D.B., Walsh, A.K. et al. Severity of Emotional and Behavioral Problems Among Poor and Typical Readers. J Abnorm Child Psychol 33, 205–217 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-005-1828-9
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-005-1828-9