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A review of the public health impacts of unconventional natural gas development

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Abstract

The public health impact of hydraulic fracturing remains a high profile and controversial issue. While there has been a recent surge of published papers, it remains an under-researched area despite being possibly the most substantive change in energy production since the advent of the fossil fuel economy. We review the evidence of effects in five public health domains with a particular focus on the UK: exposure, health, socio-economic, climate change and seismicity. While the latter would seem not to be of significance for the UK, we conclude that serious gaps in our understanding of the other potential impacts persist together with some concerning signals in the literature and legitimate uncertainties derived from first principles. There is a fundamental requirement for high-quality epidemiological research incorporating real exposure measures, improved understanding of methane leakage throughout the process, and a rigorous analysis of the UK social and economic impacts. In the absence of such intelligence, we consider it prudent to incentivise further research and delay any proposed developments in the UK. Recognising the political realities of the planning and permitting process, we make a series of recommendations to protect public health in the event of hydraulic fracturing being approved in the UK.

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Staffordshire, Stoke-on-Trent, UK

    P. J. Saunders

  2. Queen Mary University of London, London, UK

    D. McCoy

  3. West Midlands Public Health Training Scheme, Birmingham, UK

    R. Goldstein

  4. carolan57 Ltd, Birmingham, UK

    A. T. Saunders

  5. Medact, London, UK

    A. Munroe

Authors
  1. P. J. Saunders
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  2. D. McCoy
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  3. R. Goldstein
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  4. A. T. Saunders
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to P. J. Saunders.

Appendices

Appendix 1: Glossary/acronyms

AMCV:

Air monitoring comparison values

ATSDR:

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

BTEX:

Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene

CHD:

Coronary heart defects

CIs:

Confidence intervals

CNS:

Central nervous system

CO:

Carbon monoxide

CS2 :

Carbon disulphide

DBP:

Disinfection by-products

DEP:

Department of Environmental Protection

EDC:

Endocrine disrupting chemical

EPA:

Environmental Protection Agency

EUR:

Estimated ultimate recovery

FPH:

Faculty of Public Health

GHG:

Greenhouse gas

GI:

Gastrointestinal

GIS:

Geographic information system

GWP:

Global warming potential

H2S:

Hydrogen sulphide

HAPs:

Hazardous air pollutants

HI:

Hazard index

HVHF:

High-volume hydraulic fracturing

IRIS:

Integrated risk information system

LCA:

Life cycle analysis

LHV:

Lower heating value

LUST:

Leaking underground storage tanks

MCL:

Maximum content level

ML:

Local magnitude

Mw:

Magnitude scale

NIOSH:

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

NMHCs:

Non-methane hydrocarbons

NORM:

Naturally occurring radioactive materials

NOx:

Oxides of nitrogen

NTD:

Neural tube defects

OEL:

Occupational exposure limit

OSHA:

Occupational Safety and Health Administration

ONG:

Oil and natural gas

PAHs:

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

PEL:

Permissible exposure limit

PM:

Particulate matter

PSE Healthy Energy:

Physicians, Scientists and Engineers for Healthy Energy

PSM:

Propensity score matching

REL:

Recommended exposure limit sure limit

SGA:

Small for gestational age

SIRs:

Standardised incidence ratios

SO2 :

Sulphur dioxide

TCEQ:

Texas Commission on Environmental Quality

TLV:

Threshold limit value

UOG:

Unconventional oil and gas extraction

VOCs:

Volatile organic compounds

WTP:

Willing to pay

WtW:

Well to wire

WWTP:

Wastewater treatment plant

Appendix 2: Search strategy

  1. 1.

    UNGD: Shale gas, shale gas development, shale gas drill$, shale gas exploration, shale gas industry, shale gas production, unconventional gas, unconventional gas extraction, frack$, hydraulic fracturing, fracturing, high volume hydraulic fracturing, HVHF

  2. 2.

    Exposure: Air quality, pollution, water, land, contamination, toxin$, PAH$, benzene, methane, metal$, diesel fume$, VOC$, endocrine disrupt$, PM, particulate matter, particulate$, naturally occurring radioactive mat$, fume$

  3. 3.

    Health: Public health, cancer$, neurological, neurobehavioral, reproductive, Low birth weight, birth outcome$, congenital heart defect$, neural tube defect$, oral cleft$, pre term birth$, stress, occupational health, mental health, mental wellbeing, conception, infertility

  4. 4.

    Nuisance: Noise, dust, odour$, odor$, light, traffic, congestion

  5. 5.

    Climate change: Climate change, green house gas$, GHGs, methane, energy policy, fuel policy, energy security

  6. 6.

    Economic: Econom$, local economy, water sustainability, income, employment, disposable income, fuel poverty, rural economy$

  7. 7.

    Seismicity: Seism$, earthquake$, tremor$

1 and 2, 1 and 3, 1 and 4, 1 and 5, 1 and 6, 1 and 7.

Databases

The following databases were searched:

  • Ovid Medline, Economic and Social Research Council, Centre for Economic Policy Research.

Citation searches

Reference lists were examined for papers not identified in searches.

Grey literature/internet/key informants

Includes advice from recognised experts in the field and domestic and international government and key institutional websites.

Inclusion/exclusion

Inclusion:

  • All: English language, no year restrictions, international, national, regional or local effects, exclusively or significantly related to, or specifically considers HVHF and any associated infrastructure, development, operation or legacy activities/impacts.

  • Exposure: human, all environmental media, measure of exposure (direct or indirect).

  • Health: clinically diagnosed and self-reported symptoms.

  • Nuisance/economic: direct or indirect economic, environmental, nuisance and/or social impacts.

  • Climate change/policy: all GHGs, impact on compliance with fuel/energy and climate change policies and commitments.

Exclusion: animal studies, non-English, anonymous pieces, studies of UNGD technology, environmental exposures based on estimates with no measured data, levels of contamination in waste products with no assessment or estimation of exposure potential, traffic-related accidents (the UK industry will not require the level of heavy vehicle support reported in the USA and elsewhere), non-peer-reviewed commentaries, opinions, editorials, letters to the editor.

Paper review and data extraction

Data extracted to a pre-defined data extraction table. A 10% sample of included papers independently assessed by two reviewers and unresolved anomalies referred to the other authors for resolution.

Appendix 3: Excluded papers

 

Paper

Reason for rejection

1.

Abrahams LS et al. Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions From U.S. Liquefied Natural Gas Exports: Implications for End Uses. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2015, 49 (5), pp 3237–3245

LNG exports

2.

Ahmadov R, McKeen S, Trainer M, Banta R, Brewer A, Brown S, et al. 2015. Understanding high wintertime ozone pollution events in an oil- and natural gas-producing region of the western US. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 15:411–429

Oil and gas—no distinction of dominant source

3.

Albertson JD et al. A Mobile Sensing Approach for Regional Surveillance of Fugitive Methane Emissions in Oil and Gas Production. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2016, 50 (5), pp 2487–249

Describes method for detecting methane

4.

Alexander BM et al. The Development and Testing of a Prototype Mini-Baghouse to Control the Release of Respirable Crystalline Silica from Sand Movers. J Occup Environ Hyg. 2016, 13(8):628–38

Testing emission control

5.

Allard DJ. Pennsylvania’s technologically enhanced, naturally occurring radioactive material experiences and studies of the oil and gas industry. Health Phys 2015;108(2):178

Presentation

6.

Allen DT et al. Methane Emissions from Process Equipment at Natural Gas Production Sites in the United States: Pneumatic Controllers Environ. Sci. Technol., 2015, 49 (1), pp 633–640

Principally natural gas but includes conventional and unconventional and oil. No distinction of dominant source

7.

Alvarez, Ramón A, et al. Greater Focus Needed on Methane Leakage from Natural Gas Infrastructure. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109 (2012): 6435–6440

Examines changes to vehicle fleet as well as use for electricity

8.

Asche F et al. Energy Policy, 2012, vol. 47, issue C, pages 117–124

Not an issue for UK

9.

Aucott ML and Melillo JM. A Preliminary Energy Return on Investment Analysis of Natural Gas from the Marcellus Shale. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 17: 668–679

Doesn’t address economic (dis)benefits

10.

Bern CR, Clark ML, Schmidt TS, Holloway JM, McDougal RR. 2015. Soil disturbance as a driver of increased stream salinity in a semiarid watershed undergoing energy development. J. Hydrol. 524:123–136; doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2015.02.020

Website link. Refers to soil disturbance of any type

11.

Binnion, M. 2012. How the technical differences between shale gas and conventional gas projects lead to a new business model being required to be successful. Marine and Petroleum Geology. 31(1): 3–7

Doesn’t address economic (dis)benefits

12.

Birdsell DT, Rajaram H, Dempsey D, Viswanathan HS. 2015. Hydraulic fracturing fluid migration in the subsurface: A review and expanded modeling results. Water Resour. Res. 51:7159–7188; doi:10.1002/2015WR017810

Simulation

13.

Bolden AL et al. New Look at BTEX: Are Ambient Levels a Problem? Environ. Sci. Technol., 2015, 49 (9), pp 5261–5276

Review of non-cancer health effects of BTEX

14.

Boothroyd IM et al. Fugitive emissions of methane from abandoned, decommissioned oil and gas wells. Sci Total Environ. 2016 Mar 15;547:461–9

Abandoned-not relevant to UK

15.

Bowen, Z. H., et al. (2015), Assessment of surface water chloride and conductivity trends in areas of unconventional oil and gas development—Why existing national data sets cannot tell us what we would like to know, Water Resour. Res., 51, 704–71

Oil and gas—no distinction of dominant source

16.

Boyle MD, Payne-Sturges DC, Sangaramoorthy T, Wilson S, Nachman KE, Babik K, et al. (2016) Hazard Ranking Methodology for Assessing Health Impacts of Unconventional Natural Gas Development and Production: The Maryland Case Study. PLoS ONE 11(1): e0145368. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0145368

Methodological and hypothetical examples

17.

Brantley HL, Thoma ED, Eisele AP. 2015. Assessment of volatile organic compound and hazardous air pollutant emissions from oil and natural gas well pads using mobile remote and on-site direct measurements. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 65:1072–1082

Oil and gas—no distinction of dominant source

18.

Brantley SL, Yoxtheimer D, Arjmand S, Grieve P, Vidic R, Pollak J, et al. 2014. Water resource impacts during unconventional shale gas development: The Pennsylvania experience. International Journal of Coal Geology; doi:10.1016/j.coal.2013.12.017

Shortcomings of monitoring of contraventions

19.

British Columbia Oil and Gas Commission 2012

Not peer-reviewed

20.

Brown D, Weinberger B, Lewis C, Bonaparte H. 2014. Understanding exposure from natural gas drilling puts current air standards to the test. Rev Environ Health 29:277–292; doi:10.1515/reveh-2014-0002

Inadequacy of air quality standards

21.

Brown DR, Lewis C, Weinberger BI. 2015. Human exposure to unconventional natural gas development: A public health demonstration of periodic high exposure to chemical mixtures in ambient air. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A 50: 460–472

Hypothetical

22.

Brown SPA et al. Resources for the Future. Natural gas: a bridge to a low-carbon future? Resources 2009;Issue Brief 09-11

Think tank briefing

23.

Busch C and Gimon E. 2014. Natural Gas versus Coal: Is Natural Gas Better for the Climate? The Electricity Journal, 27 (7): 97–111

Natural gas in general

24.

Burkhart 2013 Potential radon release during fracturing in Colorado. Proceedings of the 2013 International AARST Symposium

Conference proceedings

25.

Carlton AG, Little E, Moeller M, Odoyo S, Shepson PB. 2014. The Data Gap: Can a Lack of Monitors Obscure Loss of Clean Air Act Benefits in Fracking Areas? Environ. Sci. Technol. 48:893–894; doi:10.1021/es405672t

Methodological

26.

Cathles LM et al. A commentary on “The greenhouse-gas footprint of natural gas in shale formations” by R.W. Howarth, R. Santoro, and Anthony Ingraffea. Climatic Change, DOI 10.1007/s10584-011-0333-0

Commentary

27.

Cathles, L. M. (2012), Assessing the greenhouse impact of natural gas, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 13, Q06013, doi:10.1029/2012GC004032

Natural gas in general

28.

Caulton DR et al.Methane Destruction Efficiency of Natural Gas Flares Associated with Shale Formation Wells. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2014, 48 (16), pp 9548–9554

Efficiency of flaring

29.

Chabudzinski L, Chmiel S, Michalczyk Z. 2015. Metal content in the waters of the upper Sanna River catchment (SE Poland): condition associated with drilling of a shale gas exploration wellbore. Environ. Earth Sci. 74:6681–6691; doi:10.1007/s12665-015-4668-0

Exploratory borewell

30.

Craddock,H. Shale gas in Europe: The chemical challenge. Materials World. 2014 22 2:41

Magazine article

31.

Darbouche H. MENA’s Growing Natural Gas Deficit and the Issue of Domestic Prices”, Energy Strategy Reviews, 2013, 2 (1): 116–121

Not an issue in the UK

32.

de Melo-Martin I et al. The role of ethics in shale gas policies. Sci Total Environ 2014 (470–471) 1114

Ethics

33.

Edwards PM et al. High winter ozone pollution from carbonyl photolysis in an oil and gas basin. Nature. 2014, 514(7522):351–4

Letter

34.

Edwards PM et al. Ozone photochemistry in an oil and natural gas extraction region during winter: simulations of a snow-free season in the Uintah Basin, Utah. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 8955–8971, doi:10.5194/acp-13-8955-2013, 2013

Simulation

35.

Elliot TR and Celia MA. Potential Restrictions for CO2 Sequestration Sites Due to Shale and Tight Gas Production. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2012, 46 (7), pp 4223–4227

Identifies sites suitable for carbon storage and overlap with shale areas that might be developed-hypothetical

36.

Entrekin SA, Maloney KO, Kapo KE, Walters AW, Evans-White MA, Klemow KM. 2015. Stream Vulnerability to Widespread and Emergent Stressors: A Focus on Unconventional Oil and Gas. PLoS ONE 10:e0137416; doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0137416

Indices to describe watershed vulnerability

37.

Fanchi JR et al. Probabilistic Decline Curve Analysis of Barnett, Fayetteville, Haynesville, and Woodford Gas Shales. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 2013, 50 109:308–311

Production modelling

38.

Fedak F et al. Birth Outcomes and Natural Gas Development: Methodological Limitations http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408647 volume 122 | number 9 | September 2014

Letter

39.

Field RA et al. Air quality concerns of unconventional oil and natural gas production. Environmental Science. Processes and Impacts 2014;16(5):954–969

Theoretical

40.

Field RA, Soltis J, McCarthy MC, Murphy S, Montague DC. 2015. Influence of oil and gas field operations on spatial and temporal distributions of atmospheric non-methane hydrocarbons and their effect on ozone formation in winter. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 15:3527–3542

Oil and gas—no distinction of dominant source

41.

Finkel ML and Law A. The rush to drill for natural gas: a public health cautionary tale. 2011 101, 5: 784–785

Commentary

42.

Franco B, Bader W, Toon GC, Bray C, Perrin A, Fischer EV, et al. 2015. Retrieval of ethane from ground-based FTIR solar spectra using improved spectroscopy: Recent burden increase above Jungfraujoch. Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer 160:36–49; doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2015.03.017

Not HVHF

43.

Freeman CM et al. A numerical study of performance for tight gas and shale gas reservoir systems Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 108: 22–39

Doesn’t address economic (dis)benefits

44.

Gallagher ME et al. Natural Gas Pipeline Replacement Programs Reduce Methane Leaks and Improve Consumer Safety. Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett., 2015, 2 (10), pp 286–291

Remedial action

45.

Gao J and Fengqi U - Shale Gas Supply Chain Design and Operations toward Better Economic and Life Cycle Environmental Performance: MINLP Model and Global Optimization Algorithm. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng., 2015, 3 (7), pp 1282–1291

Describes LCA model development-no comparison with other energy sources

46.

Gassiat C et al. 2013. Hydraulic fracturing in faulted sedimentary basins: Numerical simulation of potential contamination of shallow aquifers over long time scales. Water Resour. Res. 49:8310–8327; doi:10.1002/2013WR014287

Model to identify conditions needed for slow migration

47.

Gentner DR et al. Emissions of organic carbon and methane from petroleum and dairy operations in California’s San Joaquin Valley. Emissions of organic carbon and methane from petroleum and dairy operations in California’s San Joaquin Valley, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 4955–4978, doi:10.5194/acp-14-4955-2014, 2014

Not HVHF

48.

Gilmore K et al. Transport of Hydraulic Fracturing Water and Wastes in the Susquehanna River Basin, Pennsylvania. 2013, Transport of Hydraulic Fracturing Water and Wastes in the Susquehanna River Basin, Pennsylvania.” J. Environ. Eng., 10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0000810, B4013002

Estimates GHG contribution of transport in a specific area and transport of fracturing water not relevant to UK

49.

Goldstein BD The importance of public health agency independence: Marcellus shale gas drilling in Pennsylvania. Am J Public Health. 2014,104(2):e13–5

Lack of public health input to risk assessment

50.

Goldstein BD Kriesky J and Pavliakova B Environ Health Perspect. 2012 Apr; 120(4): 483–486

Review of expertise on advisory panels

51.

Goodwin S; Carlson K; Knox K; Douglas C; Rein L. Water intensity assessment of shale gas resources in the Wattenberg field in northeastern Colorado. Environmental Science & Technology. 48(10):5991–5, 2014

Efficient water usage-not relevant to UK

52.

Gracceva F and Zeniewski P. Exploring the uncertainty around potential shale gas development – A global energy system analysis based on TIAM (TIMES Integrated Assessment Model) Energy 2013, 57:443–457

Doesn’t address economic (dis)benefits

53.

Graham J, Irving J, Tang X, Sellers S, Crisp J, Horwitz D, et al. 2015. Increased traffic accident rates associated with shale gas drilling in Pennsylvania. Accident Analysis & Prevention 74:203–209; doi:10.1016/j.aap.2014.11.003

Traffic accidents

54.

Hammes, U et al. Unconventional reservoir potential of the upper Permian Zechstein Group: a slope to basin sequence stratigraphic and sedimentological evaluation of carbonates and organic-rich mudrocks, Northern Germany. Environ Earth Sci 2013, 70: 3797. doi:10.1007/s12665-013-2724-1

Resource estimates

55.

Harriss R et al. Using Multi-Scale Measurements to Improve Methane Emission Estimates from Oil and Gas Operations in the Barnett Shale Region, Texas. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2015, 49 (13), pp 7524–7526

Viewpoint: oil and gas

56.

Heilweil VM, Stolp BJ, Kimball BA, Susong DD, Marston TM, Gardner PM. 2013. A Stream-Based Methane Monitoring Approach for Evaluating Groundwater Impacts Associated with Unconventional Gas Development. Groundwater 51:511–524; doi:10.1111/gwat.12079

Sampling method

57.

Helmig - Highly Elevated Atmospheric Levels of Volatile Organic Compounds in the Uintah Basin, Utah Environ. Sci. Technol., 2014, 48 (9), pp 4707–4715

Gas field but no reference to HVHF

58.

Hibbard PJ and Shatzki. The Interdependence of Electricity and Natural Gas: Current Factors and Future Prospects. The Electricity Journal 2012, 25(4):6–17

Not relevant

59.

Holahan R and Arnold G. An institutional theory of hydraulic fracturing policy. Ecological Economics 2013, 94 127–134

Doesn’t address economic (dis)benefits

60.

Howard T et al. Sensor transition failure in the high flow sampler: Implications for methane emission inventories of natural gas infrastructure. J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 2015 65(7):856–62

Implications of sensor failure

61.

Howarth, R.W., Santoro, R. & Ingraffea, A. Climatic Change (2012) 113: 537. doi:10.1007/s10584-012-0401-0

Response to Cathles paper

62.

Ikonnikova S et al. Factors influencing shale gas production forecasting: Empirical studies of Barnett, Fayetteville, Haynesville, and Marcellus Shale plays. 2015, Factors influencing shale gas production forecasting: Empirical studies of Barnett, Fayetteville, Haynesville, and Marcellus Shale plays. Economics of Energy & Environmental Policy 2015, 4, (1): 19–35

Doesn’t address economic (dis)benefits

63.

Jeong S et al. Spatially Explicit Methane Emissions from Petroleum Production and the Natural Gas System in California. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2014, 48 (10): 5982–5990

Not HVHF focused

64.

Johnson Dr et al. Methane Emissions from Leak and Loss Audits of Natural Gas Compressor Stations and Storage Facilities. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2015, 49 (13): 8132–8138

Compares UNG wells with CVNG wells

65.

Kahrilas,G. A.Blotevogel,J. Stewart,P. S. Borch,T. Biocides in hydraulic fracturing fluids: A critical review of their usage, mobility, degradation, and toxicity 2015 49 (1) 16–32

Review of considerations in selecting biocides

66.

Kaiser MJ. Haynesville shale play economic analysis. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 2012, 82–83:75–89

Economic viability of this play

67.

Kaiser MJ. Profitability assessment of Haynesville shale gas well. Energy 2012, 50 38(1):315–330

Doesn’t address economic (dis)benefits

68.

Kaktins - Drilling the Marcellus shale for natural gas: environmental health issues for nursing The Pennsylvania nurse react-text: 44 66(1):4–8; quiz 8-9/react-text react-text: 47/react-text react-text: 48 March 2011

General overview for nurses

69.

Kang M et al. Direct measurements of methane emissions from abandoned oil and gas wells in Pennsylvania. PNAS 2014, 111(51):18173–18177

Abandoned sites

70.

Kang M, Baik E, Miller AR, Bandilla KW, Celia MK. 2015. Effective Permeabilities of Abandoned Oil and Gas Wells: Analysis of Data from Pennsylvania. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49:4757–4764; doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b00132

Abandoned oil and gas wells

71.

Karion A et al. Aircraft-Based Estimate of Total Methane Emissions from the Barnett Shale Region. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2015, 49 (13): 8124–813

Differentiates between oil/gas-related emissions and other sources but specifically states no attribution to HVHF

72.

Karion A et al. 2015 - Methane emissions estimate from airborne measurements over a western United States natural gas field. Geophysical Research Letters 2013, 40(16):4393–4397

Oil and gas—no distinction of dominant source

73.

Kerschke DI and Schulz H. The shale gas potential of Tournaisian, Visean, and Namurian black shales in North Germany: baseline parameters in a geological context. Environ Earth Sci 2013, 70: 3817. doi:10.1007/s12665-013-2745-9

Doesn’t address economic (dis)benefits

74.

Kopald, D. E. The Conference on Corporate Interference with Science and Health: fracking, food and wireless: genesis, rationale, and results. 2013 28 (4):145–158

Conference proceedings

75.

Korfmacher KS et al. Public health and high volume hydraulic fracturing. New Solut. 2013;23(1):13–31. doi: 10.2190/NS.23.1.c

Public health policy discussion

76.

Kort EA et al. Four corners: The largest US methane anomaly viewed from space. Geophysical Research Letters 2014, 41(19): 6898–6903

Gas, coal and coalbed methane

77.

Koss AR, de Gouw J, Warneke C, Gilman JB, Lerner BM, Graus M, et al. 2015. Photochemical aging of volatile organic compounds associated with oil and natural gas extraction in the Uintah Basin, UT, during a wintertime ozone formation event. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 15:5727–5741; doi:10.5194/acp-15-5727-2015

Oil and gas—no distinction of dominant source

78.

Kovats S et al. The health implications of fracking. The Lancet 2014, 383 (9919): 757–758

Commentary on conference

79.

Krzyzanowski - Environmental pathways of potential impacts to human health from oil and gas development in northeast British Columbia, Canada Environmental Reviews, 2012, 20(2): 122–134, 10

Oil and gas—no distinction of dominant source

80.

Lamb BK et al. Direct Measurements Show Decreasing Methane Emissions from Natural Gas Local Distribution Systems in the United States. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2015, 49 (8): 5161–5169

Distribution systems—all gas doesn’t specify UNG

81.

Lan X, Talbot R, Laine P, Torres A, Lefer B, Flynn J. 2015. Atmospheric Mercury in the Barnett Shale Area, Texas: Implications for Emissions from Oil and Gas Processing. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49:10692–10700

Oil and gas—no distinction of dominant source

82.

Lauver LS Environmental health advocacy: an overview of natural gas drilling in northeast Pennsylvania and implications for pediatric nursing J Pediatr Nurs. 2012 Aug;27(4):383–9

Guidance for nurses on evaluating issue

83.

Law A et al. Public Health England’s draft report on shale gas extraction. BMJ 2014;348:g2728

Editorial

84.

Lee J. The regional economic impact of oil and gas extraction in Texas. Energy Policy, 2015, (56) 87:60–71

University briefing paper

85.

Lee, L., Wooldridge, P. J., deGouw, J., Brown, S. S., Bates, T. S., Quinn, P. K., and Cohen, R. C.: Particulate organic nitrates observed in an oil and natural gas production region during wintertime, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 9313–9325

Oil and gas—no distinction of dominant source

86.

Lipscomb,C. A. Wang,Y. Kilpatrick,S. J. Unconventional shale gas development and real estate valuation issues. 2012 42 (2): 161–175

Unavailable

87.

Llewellyn GT, Dorman F, Westland JL, Yoxtheimer D, Grieve P, Sowers T, et al. 2015. Evaluating a groundwater supply contamination incident attributed to Marcellus Shale gas development. PNAS 201420279; doi:10.1073/pnas.1420279112

Pre-drilling salinisation sources

88.

Lu X. Implications of the Recent Reductions in Natural Gas Prices for Emissions of CO2 from the US Power Sector. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2012, 46 (5): 3014–3021

US gas prices-not relevant to UK

89.

Lyon DR et al. Constructing a Spatially Resolved Methane Emission Inventory for the Barnett Shale Region. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2015, 49 (13): 8147–8157

Oil and gas inventory estimates

90.

Mackie P, Johnman C, Sim F. 2013. Hydraulic fracturing: a new public health problem 138 years in the making? Public Health 127:887–888

Editorial

91.

Macy TR et al. Carbon Footprint Analysis of Source Water for Hydraulic Fracturing: A Case Study of Mine Water Versus Freshwater. Water Environ 2015, 34: 20

Not relevant to UK

92.

Marchese AJ et al. Methane Emissions from United States Natural Gas Gathering and Processing. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2015, 49 (17): 10718–10727

All natural gas

93.

McCarron GP, King D. 2014. Unconventional natural gas development: economic salvation or looming public health disaster? Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 38:108–109

Commentary

94.

McCawley M. Air Contaminants Associated with Potential Respiratory Effects from Unconventional Resource Development Activities. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2015, 36(3):379–87

No measures and uses traffic volumes as metric

95.

McCubbin DR et al. Quantifying the health and environmental benefits of wind power to natural gas. Energy Policy 2013, 53: 429–441

Reject-wind power

96.

McCubbin –D and Sovacool BK. The Hidden Factors That Make Wind Energy Cheaper than Natural Gas in the United States. Electricity Journal, 24 (9): 84–95

Wind energy

97.

McDermott-Levy R, Kaktins N, Sattler B. Fracking, the environment, and health. 2013 113 (6): 45–51

General implications for nursing

98.

McGlade C et al. Unconventional gas – A review of regional and global resource estimates. Energy 2013, 55: 571–584.

Resource estimates

99.

McKain K et al. Methane emissions from natural gas infrastructure and use in the urban region of Boston, Massachusetts. PNAS 2015 Feb, 112(7):1941–6

NG infrastructure and use and not UNG focused

100.

Melikoglu M. Shale gas: Analysis of its role in the global energy market. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2014, 37: 460–468

Doesn’t address economic (dis)benefits

101.

Meng, Q. Spatial analysis of environment and population at risk of natural gas fracking in the state of Pennsylvania, USA. Sci Total Environ 2015, 515–516: 198–206

Uses GIS to map ‘risk’ defined simply as proximity. No exposure measures or estimates and no health data

102.

Miller SM et al. Anthropogenic emissions of methane in the United States. PNAS 2013, 110(50): 20018–20022

General assessment of methane sources

103.

Mitchell AL and Casman EA. Economic Incentives and Regulatory Framework for Shale Gas Well Site Reclamation in Pennsylvania. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2011, 45 (22): 9506–9514

Doesn’t address economic (dis)benefits

104.

Mitchell AL et al. Measurements of Methane Emissions from Natural Gas Gathering Facilities and Processing Plants: Measurement Results. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2015, 49 (5): 219–3227

All natural gas

105.

Moitra, S. Puri, R. Paul, D. Huang, Y.-C T. Global perspectives of emerging occupational and environmental lung diseases. 2015 21 (2): 114–120

General review of potential sentinel occupational diseases

106.

Myhrvold NP and Caldeira K. Greenhouse gases, climate change and the transition from coal to low-carbon electricity. Environmental Research Letters Journal 2012, 7(1)

No specific consideration of HVHF

107.

Nathan BJ et al. Near-Field Characterization of Methane Emission Variability from a Compressor Station Using a Model Aircraft. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2015, 49 (13): 7896–7903

Compressor station

108.

Oglend - Shale Gas Boom Affecting the Relationship Between LPG and Oil Prices

Not an issue in the UK

109.

Ogneva-Himmelberger Y, Huang L. 2015. Spatial distribution of unconventional gas wells and human populations in the Marcellus Shale in the United States: Vulnerability analysis. Applied Geography 60:165–174

Analysis of spatial relationship between socio-economic factors and UNGD sites

110.

Olaguer EP et al. Updated methods for assessing the impacts of nearby gas drilling and production on neighborhood air quality and human health. J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 2016, 66(2):173–83

Methodological

111.

Olaguer EP. 2012. The potential near-source ozone impacts of upstream oil and gas industry emissions. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 62: 966–977

Hypothetical

112.

Oltmans S et al. Anatomy of wintertime ozone associated with oil and natural gas extraction activity in Wyoming and Utah. Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene, 2. 000024

Meteorological

113.

Pacsi AP, Alhajeri NS, Zavala-Araiza D, Webster MD, Allen DT. 2013. Regional air quality impacts of increased natural gas production and use in Texas. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47:3521–3527; doi:10.1021/es3044714

Production estimated

114.

Pacsi AP, Kimura Y, McGaughey G, Mcdonald-Buller EC, Allen DT. 2015. Regional ozone impacts of increased natural gas use in the Texas power sector and development in the Eagle Ford shale. Environ. Sci. Technol.; doi:10.1021/es5055012

Natural gas use

115.

Parker KM, Zeng T, Harkness J, Vengosh A, Mitch WA. 2014. Enhanced Formation of Disinfection By-Products in Shale Gas Wastewater-Impacted Drinking Water Supplies. Environ. Sci. Technol.; doi:10.1021/es5028184

Experimental

116.

Patzek TW et al. Gas production in the Barnett Shale obeys a simple scaling theory. PNAS 2013, 110(49): 19731–19736

Doesn’t address economic (dis)benefits

117.

Peischel J et al. Quantifying sources of methane using light alkanes in the Los Angeles basin, California. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 2013;118(10):4974–4990

Not focused on shale

118.

Pekney NJ et al. Measurement of atmospheric pollutants associated with oil and natural gas exploration and production activity in Pennsylvania’s Allegheny National Forest. J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 2014, 64(9):1062–72

Oil and gas—no distinction of dominant source

119.

Penning TM, Breysse PN, Gray K, Howarth M, Yan B. 2014. Environmental health research recommendations from the Inter-Environmental Health Sciences Core Center Working Group on Unconventional Natural Gas Drilling Operations. Environ Health Perspect 122:1155–1159

Working group research recommendations

120.

Perry, S. L. Using ethnography to monitor the community health implications of onshore unconventional oil and gas developments: examples from Pennsylvania’s Marcellus Shale. 2013 23 (1) 33-53

Methodological

121.

Pétron G, Frost G, Miller BR, Hirsch AI, Montzka SA, Karion A, et al. 2012. Hydrocarbon emissions characterization in the Colorado Front Range: A pilot study. J. Geophys. Res. 117:D04304

Pilot study-oil, gas and other sources

122.

Pétron G, Karion A, Sweeney C, Miller BR, Montzka SA, Frost G, et al. 2014. A new look at methane and non-methane hydrocarbon emissions from oil and natural gas operations in the Colorado Denver-Julesburg Basin. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos

Oil and gas—no distinction of dominant source

123.

Phillips NG et al. Mapping urban pipeline leaks: Methane leaks across Boston. Environ Pollut. 2013, 173:1–4

Urban pipeline leaks

124.

Powers M, Saberi P, Pepino R, Strupp E, Bugos E, Cannuscio CC. 2015. Popular Epidemiology and “Fracking”: Citizens’ Concerns Regarding the Economic, Environmental, Health and Social Impacts of Unconventional Natural Gas Drilling Operations. J. Community Health 40:534–541

Analysis of letters to local newspaper

125.

Pratson LF et al. Fuel Prices, Emission Standards, and Generation Costs for Coal vs Natural Gas Power Plants. Environ Sci Technol. 2013, 47(9):4926–33

Relates to power stations

126.

Prenni - Oil and gas impacts on air quality in federal lands in the Bakken region: an overview of the Bakken Air Quality Study and first results. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2013, 47 (9), 4926–4933

Fossil fuel

127.

Rafferty MA, Limonik E. 2013. Is shale gas drilling an energy solution or public health crisis? Public Health Nurs 30:454–462

Call for nursing research and hia

128.

Rahm BG, Bates JT, Bertoia LR, Galford AE, Yoxtheimer DA, Riha SJ. Wastewater management and Marcellus Shale gas development: Trends, drivers, and planning implications. J Environ Manage 2013, 120:105–113

Trends in wastewater use and policies

129.

Rappenglück B, Ackermann L, Alvarez S, Golovko J, Buhr M, Field RA, et al. 2014. Strong wintertime ozone events in the Upper Green River basin, Wyoming. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 14:4909–4934; doi:10.5194/acp-14-4909-2014

Fossil fuel exploration

130.

Reagan MT, Moridis GJ, Keen ND, Johnson JN. 2015. Numerical simulation of the environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing of tight/shale gas reservoirs on near-surface groundwater: Background, base cases, shallow reservoirs, short-term gas, and water transport. Water Resour. Res. 51:2543–2573; doi:10.1002/2014WR016086

Hypothetical

131.

Rella CW et al. Measuring Emissions from Oil and Natural Gas Well Pads Using the Mobile Flux Plane Technique. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2015, 49 (7): 4742–4748

Proportion of emissions by well pad

132.

Rich,A Grover,J. Sattler,M. Hunt,A. Holbrook,J. Howard,J. T1 - Air emissions from natural gas exploration and mining in the Barnett shale geologic reservoir. 2012 1 116–133. Proceedings of the Air and Waste Management Association’s Annual Conference and Exhibition, AWMA

Conference proceedings-published in included paper from JAWMA

133.

Ritter K et al. Industry experience in deriving updated emission factors to characterize methane emissions for select emission sources in natural gas systems. Carbon Management 2014, 5(5–6): 107

Review of industry efforts to characterise emissions

134.

Rodriguez MA, Barna MG, Moore T. 2009. Regional impacts of oil and gas development on ozone formation in the western United States. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 59: 1111–1118

Oil and gas—no distinction of dominant source

135.

Rutter AP, Griffin RJ, Cevik BK, Shakya KM, Gong L, Kim S, et al. 2015. Sources of air pollution in a region of oil and gas exploration downwind of a large city. Atmospheric Environment 120:89–99; doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.08.073

Oil and gas—no distinction of dominant source

136.

Sanchez N. and Mays DC. Effect of methane leakage on the greenhouse gas footprint of electricity generation. Climatic Change 2015, 133: 169. doi:10.1007/s10584-015-1471-6

Hypothetical model to identify leakage level required to eliminate advantage over coal

137.

Sang W, Stoof CR, Zhang W, Morales VL, Gao B, Kay RW, et al. 2014. Effect of Hydrofracking Fluid on Colloid Transport in the Unsaturated Zone. Environ. Sci. Technol.; doi:10.1021/es501441e

Colloid transport

138.

Schmidt CW. Blind Rush? Shale Gas Boom Proceeds Amid Human Health Questions. Environ Health Perspect 2011, 119:a348–a353

Environews article-subject to internal editing

139.

Schnell RC, Oltmans SJ, Neely RR, Endres MS, Molenar JV, White AB. 2009. Rapid photochemical production of ozone at high concentrations in a rural site during winter. Nature Geosci 2:120–122; doi:10.1038/ngeo415

Letter

140.

Schwartz MO. 2014. Modelling the hypothetical methane-leakage in a shale-gas project and the impact on groundwater quality. Environ Earth Sci 73:4619–4632; doi:10.1007/s12665-014-3787-3

Hypothetical

141.

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General discussion of uncertainties

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Identification of super-emitters and comparison of emissions with EPA emissions

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Technical assessment of ground-level monitoring techniques

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Oil and gas—no distinction of dominant source

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Methods of source apportionment

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Domestic and imported natural gas

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Changes in US and Japanese natural gas market structures

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Not HVHF

155.

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Non-peer-reviewed section of journal

156.

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Methodological

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Methodological

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Paper prepared for presentation at meeting and single author’s own views

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Economics of the process not impacts

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Doesn’t address economic (dis)benefits

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Discussion of revised regulation

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Review of oil and gas industry-hvhf papers already identified

167.

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Ethylene

169.

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Oil and gas—no distinction of dominant source

170.

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Assessment of analytical method

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Definition of super emitter

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Hypothetical

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Covers all natural gas—no distinction of dominant source

175.

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Not OECD

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Saunders, P.J., McCoy, D., Goldstein, R. et al. A review of the public health impacts of unconventional natural gas development. Environ Geochem Health 40, 1–57 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-016-9898-x

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