Abstract
Gender differences in achievement in mathematics, a traditionally male-stereotyped subject, have long been a concern for many educators around the world. Gender differences in mathematical achievement have decreased in recent decades, especially in Western countries, and become small or insignificant in large-scale tests, such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). The situation in China has not yet been studied. The recent PISA report lists China B-S-J-G (representing Beijing–Shanghai–Jiangsu–Guangdong) as an educational system with no significant gender difference in mathematical achievement. Based on a secondary analysis of PISA 2015 mathematics data from China B-S-J-G, this study more deeply scrutinized gender differences in Chinese students’ mathematical performance, emphasizing societal factors, namely students’ socioeconomic status, school level, school type, school location, and socioeconomic status at school level. This analysis revealed important differences within the overall picture. Most importantly, significantly more boys than girls scored in the top tier of mathematics achievement. At the lower- and upper-secondary school levels, boys performed significantly better than girls, with the achievement difference increasing at the upper-secondary level. Furthermore, this study found that, on average, Chinese (B-S-J-G) girls achieved significantly lower average scores on the PISA 2015 mathematics test than boys in the same school. Overall, students’ individual characteristics and school characteristics need to be separated and both taken into account to examine the role of gender in mathematical achievement, which has not been thoroughly investigated in the past.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams, R., & Wu, M. (Eds.). (2002). Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA): PISA 2000 technical report. Paris: OECD.
Baye, A., & Monseur, C. (2016). Gender differences in variability and extreme scores in an international context. Large-scale Assessments in Education, 4(1), 1–16.
Bessudnov, A., & Makarov, A. (2015). School context and gender differences in mathematics performance among school graduates in Russia. International Studies in Sociology of Education, 25(1), 63–81.
Borgonovi, F., & Jakubowski, M. (2011). What can we learn about the gender gap from PISA. Paper presented on the occasion of the IIEP Policy Forum on gender equality in education, Pairs, France. Retrieved from http://doc.iiep.unesco.org/wwwisis/repdoc/SEM313/SEM313_1_eng.pdf
Burton, L. (Ed.). (1990). Gender and mathematics: An international perspective. London: Cassell.
Connolly, P. (2006). The effect of social class and ethnicity on gender differences in GCSE attainment. British Educational Research Journal, 32(1), 3–21.
Ellison, G., & Swanson, A. (2010). The gender gap in secondary school mathematics at high achievement levels: Evidence from the American mathematics competitions. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 24(2), 109–128.
Entwisle, D. R., Alexander, K. L., & Olson, L. S. (1994). The gender gap in math: Its possible origins in neighborhood effects. American Sociological Review, 59, 822–838.
Fennema, E., Carpenter, T. P., Jacobs, V. R., Franke, M. L., & Levi, L. W. (1998). A longitudinal study of gender differences in young children’s mathematical thinking. Educational Researcher, 27(5), 6–11.
Forgasz, H., & Hill, J. C. (2013). Factors implicated in high mathematics achievement. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 11(2), 481–499.
Forgasz, H., & Rivera, F. (2012). Towards equity in mathematics education: Gender, culture, and diversity. Berlin: Springer.
Forgasz, H., Leder, G., & Kloosterman, P. (2004). New perspectives on the gender stereotyping of mathematics. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 6(4), 389–420.
Francis, B. (2000). Boys, girls and achievement: Addressing the classroom issues. London: Routledge.
Friedman, L. (1989). Mathematics and the gender gap: A meta-analysis of recent studies on sex differences in mathematical tasks. Review of Educational Research, 59, 158–213.
Gallagher, A. M., & DeLisi, R. (1994). Gender differences in Scholastic Aptitude Test – mathematics problem solving among high-ability students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 204–211.
Ganley, C., & Lubienski, S. T. (2016). Current research on gender differences in math. Retrieved from http://www.nctm.org/Publications/Teaching-Children-Mathematics/Blog/Current-Research-on-Gender-Differences-in-Math/
Grant, C. A., & Sleeter, C. E. (1986). Race, class, and gender in education research: An argumentation for integrative analysis. Review of Educational Research, 56(2), 195–211.
Grouws, D. (Ed.). (1992). Handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning. New York: Macmillan.
Grubb, N., Jahr, H. M., Neumüller, J., & Field, S. (2005). Equity in education thematic review: Finland country note. Paris: OECD Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/finland/36376641.pdf
Guiso, L., Monte, F., Sapienza, P., & Zingales, L. (2008). Diversity: Culture, gender, and math. Science, 320(5880), 1164–1165.
Hyde, J. S., Fennema, E., & Lamon, S. J. (1990). Gender differences in mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 139–155.
Hyde, J. S., Fennema, E., Ryan, M., Frost, L. A., & Hopp, C. (1990). Gender comparisons of mathematics attitudes and affect: A meta-analysis. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 14, 299–324.
Hyde, J. S., & Mertz, J. E. (2009). Gender, culture, and mathematics performance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(22), 8801–8807.
Kaiser, G. (2003). Feminist frameworks for researching mathematics. In N. B. Pateman, B. Dougherty, & J. Zilliox (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2003 Joint Meeting of PME and PMENA (Vol. 1, pp. 157–160). Honolulu: University of Hawaii.
Kaiser, G., & Rogers, P. (1995). Introduction: Equity in mathematics education. In P. Rogers & G. Kaiser (Eds.), Equity in mathematics education: Influences of feminism and culture (pp. 1–10). London: Falmer.
Kane, J. M., & Mertz, J. E. (2011). Debunking myths and gender and mathematics performance. Notices of the American Mathematical Society, 59(1), 10–21.
Leahey, E., & Guo, G. (2001). Gender differences in mathematical trajectories. Social Forces, 80, 713–732.
Leder, G. C. (1992). Mathematics and gender: Changing perspectives. In D. Grouws (Ed.), Handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning (pp. 597–622). New York: Macmillan.
Lee, M.-H. (2011). The one-child policy and gender equality in education in China: Evidence from household data. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 33(1), 41–52.
Legewie, J., & DiPrete, T. A. (2012). School context and gender gap in educational achievement. American Sociological Review, 77, 463–485.
Levine, S. C., Huttenlocher, J., Taylor, A., & Langrock, A. (1999). Early sex differences in spatial skill. Developmental Psychology, 35, 940–949.
Levine, S. C., Vasilyeva, M., Lourenco, S. F., Newcombe, N. S., & Huttenlocher, J. (2005). Socioeconomic status modifies the sex difference in spatial skill. Psychological Science, 16, 841–845.
Lindberg, S. M., Hyde, J. S., Petersen, J. L., & Linn, M. C. (2010). New trends in gender and mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136(6), 1123–1135.
Liu, L. L., Uttal, D. H., Marulis, L. M., & Newcombe, N. S. (2008). Training spatial skills: What works, for whom, why and for how long? Paper presented at the 20th annual meeting of the Association for Psychology Science. Chicago, USA.
Lubinski, S. T., & Ganley, C. M. (2017). Research on gender and mathematics. In J. Cai (Ed.), Compendium for Research in Mathematics Education (pp. 649–666). Reston: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
Lubinski, S. T., Crane, C. C., & Robinson, J. P. (2011). A longitudinal study of gender and mathematic using ECLS data (Final Report, grant #R305A080147, National Center for Education Research, Institute of Education Sciences, Washington). Abstract available from http://ies.ed.gov/funding/grantsearch/details.asp?ID=600.
Lubinski, S. T., Robinson, J. P., Crane, C. C., & Ganley, C. M. (2013). Girls’ and boys’ mathematics achievement, affect, and experiences: Findings from ECLS-K. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 44(4), 634–645.
Ma, X., Ma, L., & Bradley, K. D. (2008). Using multilevel modeling to investigate school effects. In A. A. O’Connell & D. B. McCoach (Eds.), Multilevel modeling of education data (pp. 59–110). Charlotte: Information Age Publishing.
Maccoby, E., & Jacklin, C. (1974). The psychology of sex differences. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Muller, C. (1998). Gender differences in parental involvement and adolescents’ mathematics achievement. Sociology of Education, 71(4), 336–356.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). (2010). PISA 2012 mathematics framework. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/46961598.pdf.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). (2015). The ABC of gender equality in education: Attitude, behaviour, confidence (PISA). Paris: OECD.
Radovic-Sendra, D. (2018). Gender differences in mathematics attainment in Chile. Revista Colombiana de Education, 74, 221–241.
Rathbum, A., West, J., & Germino-Hausken, E. (2004). From kindergarten through third grade: Children’s beginning school experience. Washington: National Center of Education Statistics.
Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Newbury Park. Sage.
Reilly, D., Neumann, D. L., & Andrews, G. (2016). Gender differences in spatial ability: Implications for STEM education and approaches to reducing the gender gap for parents and educators. In M. S. Khine (Ed.), Visual-spatial ability in STEM: Transforming research into practice (pp. 195–224). Cham: Springer.
Reis, S. M., & Park, S. (2001). Gender differences in high-achieving students in math and science. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 25, 52–73.
Rogers, P., & Kaiser, G. (1995). (Eds.). Equity in mathematics education: Influences of feminism and culture. London: Falmer.
Sirin, S. R. (2005). Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review of research. Review of Educational Research, 75(3), 417–453.
Swiatek, M. A., Lupkowski-Shoplik, A., & O’Donoghue, C. C. (2000). Gender differences in above-level EXPLORE scores of gifted third through sixth graders. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 718–723.
Voyer, D., Voyer, S., & Bryden, M. P. (1995). Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities: A meta-analysis and consideration of critical variables. Psychological Bulletin, 117(2), 250–270.
Wang, L., Li, X., & Li, N. (2014). Socio-economic status and mathematics achievement in China: A review. ZDM Mathematics Education, 46(7), 1051–1060.
Watt, H. M. G. (2010). Gender and occupational choice. In J. C. Chrisler & D. R. McCreary (Eds.), Handbook of gender research in psychology (pp. 379–400). New York: Springer.
West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987). Doing Gender. Gender & Society, 1(2), 125–151.
Wilder, G. Z., & Powell, K. (1989). Sex differences in test performance: A survey of the literature. (College Board Report 89–3, pp. i–50). New York: College Entrance Examination Board.
Willingham, W. W., & Cole, N. S. (1997). Research on gender differences. In W. W. Willingham & N. S. Cole (Eds.), Gender and fair assessment (pp. 17–54). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Willis, S. (1989). “Real girls don’t do maths”: Gender and the construction of privilege. Waurn ponds: Deakin University Press.
Wong, K.-C., Lam, Y. R., & Ho, L.-M. (2002). The effects of schooling on gender differences. British Educational Research Journal, 28(6), 827–843.
Zhang, D., Dai, Z., & Tang, R. (1998). A guide to the research on mathematics education (in Chinese). Nanjing: Jiangsu Education Press.
Zheng, J. (2011). Teaching research of gender differences in secondary students’ mathematics learning abilities (in Chinese). (Unpublished master thesis). Ningxia University, China
Acknowledgements
This work is sponsored by (1) Shanghai Pujiang Program “Research on gender differences in mathematical learning” (13PJC041). (2) Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. (3) Major project of humanities and social science key research base from the Ministry of education, China, “Research on the Assessment of Chinese students' mathematics competency” (16JJD880023).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Zhu, Y., Kaiser, G. & Cai, J. Gender equity in mathematical achievement: the case of China. Educ Stud Math 99, 245–260 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-018-9846-z
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-018-9846-z