Abstract
Avoiding negative effects of competition from released hatchery salmonids on wild fish is a primary concern for recovery efforts and fisheries management. Several factors affect competition among juvenile salmonids including: (1) whether competition is intra- or interspecific, (2) duration of freshwater cohabitation of hatchery and wild fish, (3) relative body size, (4) prior residence, (5) environmentally induced developmental differences, and (6) fish density. Intraspecific competition is expected to be greater than interspecific because of greater niche overlap between conspecific hatchery and wild fish. Competition is expected to increase with prolonged freshwater cohabitation. Hatchery smolts are often larger than wild, and larger fish are usually superior competitors. However, wild fish have the advantage of prior residence when defending territories and resources in natural streams. Hatchery-induced developmental differences are variable and can favor both hatchery and wild fish. Although all these factors influence competitive interactions, fish density of the composite population (wild + hatchery fish) in relation to habitat carrying capacity likely exerts the greatest influence. The extent of competition and relative competitive ability of wild and hatchery fish can be determined by additive and substitutive experimental designs, respectively, and the limited body of substitutive experiments suggests that the relative competitive ability of hatchery and wild fish is approximately equal when measured as growth. Conducting substitutive experiments becomes difficult as the spatial and temporal scales increase. Large-scale experiments comparing supplemented and control reaches or streams hold some promise for quantifying the effects of released hatchery fish on wild fish behavior, growth and survival.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abbott JC, Dunbrack RL, Orr CD (1985) The interaction of size and experience in dominance relationships of juvenile steelhead trout (Salmo gairdneri). Behaviour 92:241–253
Archer J (1987) The biology of aggression. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Armstrong JD (1997) Self-thinning in juvenile sea trout and other salmonid fishes revisited. J Anim Ecol 66:519–526
Berejikian BA, Larsen DA, Swanson P et al (2011) Development of natural growth regimes for hatchery-reared steelhead to reduce residualism, fitness loss, and negative ecological interactions. Environ Biol Fish. doi:10.1007/s10641-011-9788-0
Birch LC (1957) The meanings of competition. Am Nat 91:5–18
Bisson PA, Sullivan K, Nielsen JL (1988) Channel hydraulics, habitat use, and body form of juvenile coho salmon, steelhead, and cutthroat trout in streams. Trans Am Fish Soc 117:262–273
Brannon EL, Powell MS, Quinn TP et al (2004) Population structure of Columbia River Basin chinook salmon and steelhead trout. Rev Fish Sci 12:99–232
Bohlin T, Sundstrom LF, Johnsson JI et al (2002) Density-dependent growth in brown trout: effects of introducing wild and hatchery fish. J Anim Ecol 71:683–692
Boldt JL, Haldorson LJ (2004) Size and condition of wild and hatchery pink salmon juveniles in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Trans Am Fish Soc 133:173–184
Close TL, Anderson CS (1992) Dispersal, density-dependent growth, and survival of stocked steelhead fry in Lake Superior tributaries. N Am J Fish Manag 12:728–735
Deverill JI, Adams CE, Bean CW (1999) Prior residence, aggression and territory acquisition in hatchery-reared and wild brown trout. J Fish Biol 55:868–875
Dunham JB, Vinyard GL (1997) Relationships between body mass, population density, and the self-thinning rule in stream-living salmonids. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 54:1025–1030
Einum S, Fleming IA (2001) Implications of stocking: ecological interactions between wild and released salmonids. Nord J Freshw Res 75:56–70
Elliott JM (1989) Mechanisms responsible for population regulation in young migratory trout, Salmo trutta. 1. The critical time for survival. J Anim Ecol 58:987–1001
Elliott JM (1990) Mechanisms responsible for population regulation in young migratory trout, Salmon trutta. 2. Fish growth and size variation. J Anim Ecol 59:171–185
Fausch KD (1988) Tests of competition between native and introduced salmonids in streams – what have we learned. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 45:2238–2246
Fausch KD (1998) Interspecific competition and juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): on testing effects and evaluating the evidence across scales. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 55:218–231
Grant JWA, Imre I (2005) Patterns of density-dependent growth in juvenile stream-dwelling salmonids. J Fish Biol 67(Supplement B):100–110
Gross MR, Coleman RM, McDowall RM (1988) Aquatic productivity and the evolution of diadromous fish migration. Science 239:1291–1293
Harvey BC, Nakamoto RJ (1996) Effects of steelhead density on growth of coho salmon in a small coastal California stream. Trans Am Fish Soc 125:237–243
Hasegawa K, Yamamoto T, Murakami M et al (2004) Comparison of competitive ability between native and introduced salmonids: evidence from pairwise contests. Ichthyol Res 51:191–194
Hearn WE (1987) Interspecific competition and habitat segregation among stream-dwelling trout and salmon – a review. Fisheries 12:24–31
Hebdon JL, Kline P, Taki D et al (2004) Evaluating reintroduction strategies for Redfish Lake sockeye salmon captive broodstock progeny. In: Nickum MJ, Mazik PM, Nickum JG, MacKinlay DD (eds) Propagated fish in resource management. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, pp 401–413
Henderson MA, Cass AJ (1991) Effect of smolt size on smolt-to-adult survival for Chilko Lake sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka). Can J Fish Aquat Sci 48:988–994
Hilborn R (1992) Hatcheries and the future of salmon in the northwest. Fisheries 17:5–8
Hill MS, Zydlewski GB, Gale WL (2006) Comparisons between hatchery and wild steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) smolts: physiology and habitat use. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 63:1627–1638
Holtby LB, Andersen BC, Kadowaki RK (1990) Importance of smolt size and early ocean growth to interannual variability in marine survival of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Can J Fish Aquat Sci 47:2181–2194
Hume JMB, Parkinson EA (1987) Effect of stocking density on the survival, growth, and dispersal of steelhead trout fry (Salmo gairdneri). Can J Fish Aquat Sci 44:271–281
Huntingford FA, deLeaniz CG (1997) Social dominance, prior residence and the acquisition of profitable feeding sites in juvenile Atlantic salmon. J Fish Biol 51:1009–1014
Kato F (1991) Life histories of masu and amago salmon (Oncorhynchus masou and Oncorhynchus rhodurus). In: Groot C, Margolis L (eds) Pacific salmon life histories. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, pp 448–520
Keeley ER (2003) An experimental analysis of self-thinning in juvenile steelhead trout. Oikos 102:543–550
Koenings JP, Burkett RD (1987) Population characteristics of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) smolts relative to temperature regimes, euphotic volume, fry density, and forage base within Alaskan lakes. Can Special Publication Fish Aquat Sci 96:216–234
Kostow K (2009) Factors that contribute to the ecological risks of salmon and steelhead hatchery programs and some mitigating strategies. Rev Fish Biol Fish 19:9–31
Krebs JR, Davies NB (1987) Introduction to behavioural ecology. Blackwell, Oxford
Larsen DA, Beckman BR, Strom CR et al (2006) Growth modulation alters the incidence of early male maturation and physiological development of hatchery-reared spring Chinook salmon: a comparison with wild fish. Trans Am Fish Soc 135:1017–1032
Laska MS, Wootton JT (1998) Theoretical concepts and empirical approaches to measuring interaction strength. Ecology 79:461–476
McClure MM, Carlson SM, Beechie TJ et al (2008) Evolutionary consequences of habitat loss for Pacific anadromous salmonids. Evol Appl 1:300–318
McMichael GA, Sharpe CS, Pearsons TN (1997) Effects of residual hatchery-reared steelhead on growth of wild rainbow trout and spring Chinook salmon. Trans Am Fish Soc 126:230–239
Metcalfe NB, Valdimarsson SK, Morgan IJ (2003) The relative roles of domestication, rearing environment, prior residence and body size in deciding territorial contests between hatchery and wild juvenile salmon. J Appl Ecol 40:535–544
Miyakoshi Y, Hayano H, Fujiwara M et al (1998) Assessment of hatchery origin and wild masu salmon (Oncorhynchus masou) smolts in the Masuhoro River, 1996. Scientific Reports of the Hokkaido Fish Hatchery 52:1–10
Miyakoshi Y, Nagata M, Kitada S (2001) Effect of smolt size on postrelease survival of hatchery-reared masu salmon Oncorhynchus masou. Fish Sci 67:134–137
Mobrand LE, Barr J, Blankenship L et al (2005) Hatchery reform in Washington state: principles and emerging issues. Fisheries 30:11–23
Morita K, Morita SH, Yamamoto S (2009) Effects of habitat fragmentation by damming on salmonid fishes: lessons from white-spotted charr in Japan. Ecol Res 24:711–722
Ovidio M, Capra H, Philippart JC (2008) Regulated discharge produces substantial demographic changes on four typical fish species of a small salmonid stream. Hydrobiologia 609:59–70
Pearsons TN, Temple GM (2007) Impacts of early stages of salmon supplementation and reintroduction programs on three trout species. N Am J Fish Manag 27:1–20
Pearsons TN, Temple GM (2010) Changes to rainbow trout abundance and salmonid biomass in a Washington watershed as related to hatchery salmon supplementation. Trans Am Fish Soc 139:502–520
Peery CA, Bjornn TC (1996) Small-scale investigations into Chinook salmon supplementation strategies and techniques 1992–1994. Idaho Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, University of Idaho, pp. 138
Pettersson J, Johnsson JI, Bohlin T (1996) The competitive advantage of large body size declines with increasing group size in rainbow trout. J Fish Biol 49:370–372
Quinn TP (2005) The behavior and ecology of Pacific salmon and trout. University of Washington Press, Seattle
Randall RG, Healey MC, Dempson JB (1987) Variability in length of freshwater residence of salmon, trout, and char. Am Fish Soc Symp 1:27–41
Reese C, Hillgruber N, Sturdevant M et al (2009) Spatial and temporal distribution and the potential for estuarine interactions between wild and hatchery chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) in Taku Inlet, Alaska. Fish Bull 107:433–450
Rhodes JS, Quinn TP (1998) Factors affecting the outcome of territorial contests between hatchery and naturally reared coho salmon parr in the laboratory. J Fish Biol 53:1220–1230
Riley SC, Fuss HJ, LeClair LL (2004) Ecological effects of hatchery-reared juvenile Chinook and coho salmon on wild juvenile salmonids in two Washington streams. N Am J Fish Manag 24:506–517
Riley SC, Tatara CP, Scheurer JA (2005) Aggression and feeding of hatchery-reared and naturally reared steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fry in a laboratory flume and a comparison with observations in natural streams. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 62:1400–1409
Riley SC, Tatara CP, Berejikian BA et al (2009a) Behavior of steelhead fry in a laboratory stream is affected by fish density but not rearing environment. N Am J Fish Manag 29:1806–1818
Riley WD, Maxwell DL, Pawson MG, Ives MJ (2009b) The effects of low summer flow on wild salmon (Salmo salar), trout (Salmo trutta) and grayling (Thymallus thymallus) in a small stream. Freshw Biol 54:2581–2599
Sabo JL, Pauley GB (1997) Competition between stream-dwelling cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki) and coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch): effects of relative size and population origin. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 54:2609–2617
Small MP, Currens K, Johnson TH et al (2009) Impacts of supplementation: genetic diversity in supplemented and unsupplemented populations of summer chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) in Puget Sound (Washington, USA). Can J Fish Aquat Sci 66:1216–1229
Sundstrom LF, Bohlin T, Johnsson JI (2004) Density-dependent growth in hatchery-reared brown trout released into a natural stream. J Fish Biol 65:1385–1391
Tatara CP, Riley SC, Scheurer JA (2008) Environmental enrichment in steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) hatcheries: field evaluation of aggression, foraging, and territoriality in natural and hatchery fry. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 65:744–753
Tatara CP, Riley SC, Scheurer JA (2009) Growth, survival, and habitat use of naturally reared and hatchery steelhead fry in streams: effects of an enriched hatchery rearing environment. Trans Am Fish Soc 138:441–457
Theriault V, Moyer GR, Banks MA (2010) Survival and life history characteristics among wild and hatchery coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) returns: how do unfed fry differ from smolt releases? Can J Fish Aquat Sci 67:486–497
Tipping JM (1997) Effect of smolt length at release on adult returns of hatchery-reared winter steelhead. Progressive Fish-Culturist 59:310–311
Vehanen T, Huusko A, Hokki R (2009) Competition between hatchery-raised and wild brown trout Salmo trutta in enclosures - do hatchery releases have negative effects on wild populations? Ecol Freshwat Fish 18:261–268
Viola AE, Schuck ML (1995) A method to reduce the abundance of residual hatchery steelhead in rivers. N Am J Fish Manag 15:488–493
Ward DM, Nislow KH, Armstrong JD, Einum S, Folt CL (2007) Is the shape of the density-growth relationship for stream salmonids evidence for exploitative rather than interference competition? J Anim Ecol 76:135–138
Weber ED, Fausch KD (2003) Interactions between hatchery and wild salmonids in streams: differences in biology and evidence for competition. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 60:1018–1036
Weber ED, Fausch KD (2005) Competition between hatchery-reared and wild juvenile Chinook salmon in enclosures in the Sacramento River, California. Trans Am Fish Soc 134:44–58
Xu CL, Letcher BH, Nislow KH (2010) Size-dependent survival of brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis in summer: effects of water temperature and stream flow. J Fish Biol 76:2342–2369
Yamamoto S, Nakamura H, Koga K (2008) Interaction between hatchery and wild juvenile white-spotted charr Salvelinus leucomaenis in a stream enclosure experiment. J Fish Biol 73:861–869
Yamamoto S, Kitano S, Sakano H et al (2010) Differences in longitudinal distribution patterns along a Honshu stream of brown trout Salmo trutta, white-spotted charr Salvelinus leucomaenis and masu salmon Oncorhynchus masou. Fish Sci 76:275–280
Young KA (2004) Asymmetric competition, habitat selection, and niche overlap in juvenile salmonids. Ecology 85:134–149
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Jonathan Lee for his assistance in the early stages of formulating the ideas presented in this manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Tatara, C.P., Berejikian, B.A. Mechanisms influencing competition between hatchery and wild juvenile anadromous Pacific salmonids in fresh water and their relative competitive abilities. Environ Biol Fish 94, 7–19 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10641-011-9906-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10641-011-9906-z