Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

If-Then Plans Benefit Delay of Gratification Performance in Children With and Without ADHD

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Cognitive Therapy and Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Children with impulse control deficits (i.e., children with ADHD) are known to have special problems with delaying gratifications. As making if-then plans (i.e., forming implementation intentions) has been found to benefit self-control even in individuals whose action control is chronically hampered (e.g., critical samples such as patients with frontal lobe damage, the elderly), we analyzed whether delay of gratification is facilitated in children with and without ADHD who have formed respective implementation intentions. In Study 1, forty-five inpatient children with ADHD (M age = 10.7 years) increased delay of gratification performance after having formed respective implementation intentions. Study 2 replicated this finding in an outpatient sample of children with ADHD (n = 47, M age = 10.3 years) and also in a comparison group of children without ADHD (n = 40, M age = 11.3 years). Results are discussed with respect to their implications for action control in children with ADHD as well as research on implementation intentions and delay of gratification.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. For ease of presentation, the term ADHD is used as an abbreviation for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder according to the ICD-10 category of Hyperkinetic Disorder and the DSM-IV combined subtype.

References

  • Aarts, H., Dijksterhuis, A. P., & Midden, C. (1999). To plan or not to plan? Goal achievement of interrupting the performance of mundane behaviors. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 971–979.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anastopoulos, A. D., Rhoads, L. H., & Farley, S. E. (2006). Counseling and training parents. In R. A. Barkley (Ed.), ADHD: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (3rd ed., pp. 453–479). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Antrop, I., Roeyers, H., Van Oost, P., & Buysse, A. (2000). Stimulation seeking and hyperactivity in children with ADHD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 41, 225–231.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arbeitsgruppe Deutsche Child Behavior Checklist. (1998). Elternfragebogen über das Verhalten von Kindern und Jugendlichen. Deutsche Bearbeitung der Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL/4–18) [German consensus version of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL/4–18)]. Köln: Arbeitsgruppe Kinder-, Jugend- und Familiendiagnostik (KJFD).

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (1990). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (1997a). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 65–94.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (1997b). Defiant children: A clinician’s manual for assessment and parent training. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bayer, U. C., Achtziger, A., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Moskowitz, G. (2009). Responding to subliminal cues: Do if-then plans cause action preparation and initiation without conscious intent? Social Cognition, 27, 183–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bayer, U. C., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2007). Boosting scholastic test scores by willpower: The role of implementation intentions. Self and Identity, 6, 1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brandstätter, V., Lengfelder, A., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2001). Implementation intentions and efficient action initiation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 946–960.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chamberlain, S. R., & Sahakian, B. J. (2007). The neuropsychiatry of impulsivity. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 20, 255–261.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155–159.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, A.-L., Bayer, U. C., Jaudas, A., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2008). Self-regulatory strategy and executive control: Implementation intentions modulate task switching and Simon task performance. Psychological Research, 72, 12–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Douglas, V. I., & Parry, P. A. (1994). Effects of reward and nonreward on frustration and attention in attention deficit disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22, 281–302.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eigsti, I., Zayas, V., Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., Ayduk, O., Dadlani, M. B., et al. (2006). Predictive cognitive control from preschool to late adolescence and young adulthood. Psychological Science, 17, 478–484.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fallgatter, A. J., Ehlis, A. C., Seifert, J., Strik, W. K., Scheuerpflug, P., Zillessen, K. E., et al. (2004). Altered response control and anterior cingulate function in ADHD boys. Clinical Neurophysiology, 115, 973–981.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, M., Barkley, R. A., Smallish, L., & Fletcher, K. (2005). Executive functioning in hyperactive children as young adults: Attention, inhibition, response perseveration, and the impact of comorbidity. Developmental Neuropsychology, 27, 107–133.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frazier, T. W., Demaree, H. A., & Youngstrom, E. A. (2004). Meta-analysis of intellectual and neuropsychological test performance in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychology, 18, 543–555.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gawrilow, C., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2008). Implementation intentions facilitate response inhibition in children with ADHD. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 32, 261–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gollwitzer, P. M. (1993). Goal achievement: The role of intentions. European Review of Social Psychology, 4, 141–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions. Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54, 493–503.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gollwitzer, P. M., & Brandstätter, V. (1997). Implementation intentions and effective goal pursuit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 186–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gollwitzer, P. M., & Sheeran, P. (2006). Implementation intentions and goal achievement: A meta-analysis of effects and processes. Advances of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 69–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, K. R., Danoff-Friedlander, B., Saddler, B., Frizzelle, R., & Graham, S. (2005). Self-monitoring of attention versus self-monitoring of academic performance: Differential effects among students with ADHD in the regular classroom. Journal of Special Education, 39, 145–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, M. D., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Oettingen, G. (2008). Implementation intentions and disengagement from a failing course of action. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 20, 81–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jerome, L., Segal, A., & Habinski, L. (2006). What we know about ADHD and driving risk: A literature review, meta-analysis and critique. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 15, 105–125.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuntsi, J., Stevenson, J., Oosterlaan, J., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2001). Test-retest reliability of a new delay aversion task and executive measures. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 19, 339–348.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lengfelder, A., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2001). Reflective and reflexive action control in patients with frontal brain lesions. Neuropsychology, 15, 80–100.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meichenbaum, D. H., & Goodman, J. (1971). Training impulsive children to talk to themselves: A means of developing self-control. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 77, 115–126.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Metcalfe, J., & Mischel, W. (1999). A hot/cool system analysis of delay of gratification: Dynamics of willpower. Psychological Review, 106, 3–19.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Milne, S., Orbell, S., & Sheeran, P. (2002). Combining motivational and volitional interventions to promote exercise participation: Protection motivation theory and implementation intentions. British Journal of Health Psychology, 7, 163–184.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mischel, W. (1958). Preference for delayed reinforcement: An experimental study of a cultural observation. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 56, 57–61.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mischel, W. (1974). Processes in delay of gratification. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in social psychology (pp. 249–292). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mischel, W. (1996). From good intentions to willpower. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. 197–218). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Rodriguez, M. L. (1989). Delay of gratification in children. Science, 244, 933–938.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T. (2001). Is ADHD a disinhibitory disorder? Psychological Bulletin, 127, 571–598.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oosterlaan, J., Logan, G. D., & Sergeant, J. A. (1998). Response inhibition in ADHD, CD, comorbid ADHD +CD, anxious and normal children: A metaanalysis of studies with the stop task. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 411–425.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oosterlaan, J., & Sergeant, J. A. (1996). Inhibition in ADHD, aggressive, and anxious children: A biologically based model of child psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 19–36.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Orbell, S., Hodgins, S., & Sheeran, P. (1997). Implementation intentions and the theory of planned behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 945–954.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orbell, S., & Sheeran, P. (2000). Motivational and volitional processes in action initiation: A field study of the role of implementation intentions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30, 780–797.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parks-Stamm, E. J., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Oettingen, G. (2007). Action control by implementation intentions: Effective cue detection and efficient response initiation. Social Cognition, 25, 248–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paul, I., Gawrilow, C., Zech, F., Gollwitzer, P. M., Rockstroh, B., Odenthal, G., et al. (2007). If-then planning modulates the P300 in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neuro Report, 18, 653–657.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pelham, W. E., Wheeler, T., & Chronis, A. (1998). Empirically supported psychosocial treatments for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 190–205.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rapport, M. D., Tucker, S. B., DuPaul, G. J., Merlo, M., & Stoner, G. (1986). Hyperactivity and frustration: The influence of control over size of rewards in delay of gratification. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 14, 191–204.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reid, R., Trout, A. L., & Schartz, M. (2005). Self-regulation interventions for children with ADHD. Exceptional Children, 71, 361–377.

    Google Scholar 

  • Renner, G. (2002). Kritische Werte und Konfidenzintervalle zur Interpretation von HAWIK-III IQ Skalen, Index-Werten und Subtests [Differences required for significance and confidence intervals to aid the interpretation of HAWIK-III IQ scores, index-scores and subtests]. Zeitschrift für Differentielle und Diagnostische Psychologie, 23, 353–358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez, M. L., Mischel, W., & Shoda, Y. (1989). Cognitive person variables in the delay of gratification in older children at risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 358–367.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sattler, J. M. (1992). Assessment of children’s intelligence. San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheres, A., Dijkstra, M., Ainslie, E., Balkan, J., Reynolds, B., Sonuga-Barke, E., et al. (2006). Temporal and probabilistic discounting of rewards in children and adolescents: Effects of age and ADHD symptoms. Neuropsychologia, 44, 2092–2102.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheres, A., Lee, A., & Sumiya, M. (2008). Temporal reward discounting and ADHD: Task and symptom specific effects. Journal of Neural Transmission, 115, 221–226.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seidman, L. J. (2006). Neuropsychological functioning in people with ADHD across the lifespan. Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 466–485.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheeran, P., & Orbell, S. (2000). Using implementation intentions to increase attendance for cervical cancer screening. Health Psychology, 18, 283–289.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shoda, Y., Mischel, W., & Peake, P. (1990). Predicting adolescent cognitive and self-regulatory competencies from preschool delay of gratification: Identifying diagnostic conditions. Developmental Psychology, 26, 978–986.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solanto, M. V., Abikoff, H., Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Schachar, R., Logan, G. D., Wigal, T., et al. (2001). The ecological validity of delay aversion and response inhibition as measures of impulsivity in ADHD: A supplement to the NIMH multimodal treatment study of ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 215–228.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2002). Psychological heterogenity in ADHD—A dual pathway model of behavior and cognition. Behavioral Brain Research, 130, 29–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Sergeant, J. A., Nigg, J., & Willcutt, E. (2008). Executive dysfunction and delay aversion in ADHD: Nosological and diagnostic implications. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 17, 367–384.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Taylor, E., Sembi, S., & Smith, J. (1992). Hyperactivity and delay aversion—I. The effect of delay on choice. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33, 387–398.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Williams, E., Hall, M., & Saxton, T. (1996). Hyperactivity and delay aversion—III. The effect on cognitive style of imposing delay after errors. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 189–194.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strayhorn, J. M. (2002). Self-control: Toward systematic training programs. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 17–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tangney, J. P., Baumeister, R. F., & Boone, A. (2004). High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Journal of Personality, 72, 271–324.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tewes, U., Rossmann, P., & Schallberger, U. (1999). Wechsler intelligence test for children, HAWIK-III. Bern: Huber.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, T. L., & Sheeran, P. (2004). Identifying good opportunities to act: Implementation intentions and cue discrimination. European Journal of Social Psychology, 34, 407–419.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webb, T. L., & Sheeran, P. (2006). Does changing behavioral intentions engender behavior change? A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 249–268.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Webb, T. L., & Sheeran, P. (2007). How do implementation intentions promote goal attainment? A test of component processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43, 295–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webb, T. L., & Sheeran, P. (2008). Mechanisms of implementation intention effects: The role of goal intentions, self-efficacy, and accessibility of plan components. British Journal of Social Psychology, 47, 373–395.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • WHO. (1991). Internationale Klassifikation psychischer Störungen: ICD 10, Kapitel V. [Tenth revision of the international classification of diseases, Chapter V(F): Mental and behavioral disorders]. Bern: Huber.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yates, B. T., & Mischel, W. (1979). Young children’s preferred attentional strategies for delaying gratification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 286–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. German Institute for International Educational Research (DIPF), Center for Individual Development and Adaptive Education of Children at Risk (IDeA), University of Frankfurt, Mertonstr. 17, 60325, Frankfurt, Germany

    Caterina Gawrilow

  2. New York University, New York, NY, USA

    Peter M. Gollwitzer & Gabriele Oettingen

  3. University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany

    Peter M. Gollwitzer

  4. University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

    Gabriele Oettingen

Authors
  1. Caterina Gawrilow
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Peter M. Gollwitzer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Gabriele Oettingen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Caterina Gawrilow.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Gawrilow, C., Gollwitzer, P.M. & Oettingen, G. If-Then Plans Benefit Delay of Gratification Performance in Children With and Without ADHD. Cogn Ther Res 35, 442–455 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-010-9309-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-010-9309-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation