Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Farm-Level Adaptation to Climatic Variability and Change: Crop Diversification in the Canadian Prairies

  • Published:
Climatic Change Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Among other foci, recent research on adaptation to climatic variability and change has sought to evaluate the merit of adaptation generally, as well as the suitability of particular adaptations. Additionally, there is a need to better understand the likely uptake of adaptations. For example, diversification is one adaptation that has been identified as a potential farm-level response to climatic variability and change, but its adoption by farmers for this reason is not well understood. This paper serves two purposes. The first is to document the adoption of crop diversification in Canadian prairie agriculture for the period 1994–2002, reflect upon its strengths and limitations for managing a variety of risks, including climatic ones, and gauge its likely adoption by producers in response to anticipated climate change. The second purpose is to draw on this case to refine our current understanding of climate change adaptation more generally. Based upon data from over 15 000 operations, it was determined that individual farms have become more specialized in their cropping patterns since 1994, and this trend is unlikely to change in the immediate future, notwithstanding anticipated climate change and the known risk-reducing benefits of crop diversification. More broadly, the analysis suggests that ‘suitable’ and even ‘possible’ climate change adaptations need to be more rigorously assessed in order to understand their wider strengths and limitations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada: 1998, ‘Western Canadian Diversification and Agri-food Processing Since 1995’, Bi-weekly Bulletin 11, Market Analysis Division, Policy Branch, Winnipeg, p. 6.

  • Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada: 2000, Farm Income, Financial Conditions and Government Assistance Data Book 2000, Research & Analysis Directorate Ottawa.

  • Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada [online]: 2003, The 2002 Prairie Drought [cited 1 July 2003], available from: [http://www.agr.gc.ca/pfra/drought/drought02sum_e.htm].

  • Anderson, K.: 1992, ‘Agricultural Trade Liberalisation and the Environment: A Global Perspective’, The World Econ. 15, 153–171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bateman, D. and Ray, C.: 1994, ‘Farm Pluriactivity and Rural Policy: Some Evidence from Wales’, J. Rural Stud. 10, 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boggess, W., Anaman, K., and Hanson, G.: 1985, ‘Importance, Causes and Management Responses to Farm Risks: Evidence from Florida and Alabama’, South J. Agric. Econ. 17,105–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bollman, R. and Tomiak, M.: 1988, ‘Decoupled Agricultural Policy and the Lack of Production Alternatives’, Can. J. Agric. Econ. 36, 349–352.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bollman, R., Whitener, L., and Tung, F.: 1995, ‘Trends and Patterns of Agricultural Structural Change: A Canada–U.S. Comparison’, Can. J. Agric. Econ. (Special Issue) 43, 15–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradshaw, B. and Smit, B.: 1997, ‘Subsidy Removal and Agroecosystem Health’,Agric. Ecosystems Environ. 64, 245–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brklacich, M., Bryant, C., Veenhof, B., and Beauchesne, A.: 2000, ‘Agricultural Adaptation to Climatic Change: A Comparative Assessment of Two Types of Farming in Central Canada’,in Millward, H., Beesley, K., Ilbery, B., and Harrington, L. (eds.), Agricultural and Environmental Sustainability in the New Countryside, Hignell Printing Limited, Winnipeg, pp. 40–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, C. R., Smit, B., Brklacich, M., Johnston, T., Smithers, J., Chiotti, Q., and Singh, B.: 2000, ‘Adaptation in Canadian Agriculture to Climatic Variability and Change’, Clim. Change 45, 181–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, C., Zentenr, R., Gameda, S., Blomert, B., and Wall, D.: 2002, ‘Production of Annual Crops on the Canadian Prairies: Trends During 1976–1998’, Can. J. Soil Sci. 82, 45–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Canadian Wheat Board [online]: 2003, Payments & Statistical Tables [cited 14 Feb 2003], available from: <http://www.cwb.ca>.

  • Carter, T. R., Parry, M. L., Harasawa, H., and Nishioka, S.: 1994, IPCC Technical Guidelines for Assessing Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation, Department of Geography, University College London, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiotti, Q. and Johnston, T. R. R.: 1995, ‘Extending the Boundaries of Climate Change Research: A Discussion on Agriculture’, J. Rural Stud. 11, 335–350.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S. and Miller, K.: 2001, ‘North America’,in McCarthy, J. J., Canziani, O. F., Learty, N. A., Dokken, D. J., and White, K. S. (eds.), Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Geneva, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K. and New York, U.S.A., pp. 735–800.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Loë, R. and Kreutzwiser, R.: 2000, ‘Climate Variability, Climate Change and Water Resource Management in the Great Lakes’, Clim. Change 45, 163–172.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Loë, R., Kreutzwiser, R., and Mararu, L.: 2001, ‘Adaptation Options for the Near Term: Climate Change and the Canadian Water Sector’, Global Environ. Change 11, 231–245.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dolan, A. H., Smit, B., Skinner, M. W., Bradshaw, B., and Bryant, C. R.: 2001, ‘Adaptation to Climate Change in Agriculture: Evaluation of Options’, Occasional Paper No. 26, Department of Geography, University of Guelph.

  • Downing, T. E., Ringius, L., Hulme, M., and Waughray, D.: 1997, ‘Adapting to Climate Change in Africa’, Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 2, 19–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dumanski, J., Coote, D. R., Luciuk, G., and Lok, C.: 1986, ‘Soil Conservation in Canada’, J. Soil Water Conser. 41, 204–210.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eakin, H.: 2000, ‘Smallholder Maize Production and Climatic Risk: A Case Study from Mexico’, Clim. Change 45, 19–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Easterling, W. E.: 1996, ‘Adapting North American Agriculture to Climate Change in Review’, Agric. For. Meteorol. 80, 1–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Environment Canada [online]: 2003, Climate Trends and Variations Bulletin [cited 1 July 2003], available from: <http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/ccrm/bulletin>.

  • Fankhauser, S.: 1996, ‘The Potential Costs of Climate Change Adaptation’,in Smith,J. B., Bhatti, N., Menzhulin, G., Bennioff, R., Budyko, M., Campos, M., Jallow, B., and Rijsberman, F. (eds.), Adapting to Climate Change: An International Perspective, Springer, New York, pp. 80–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleisher, B.: 1990, Agricultural Risk Management, Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gertler, M.: 1998, ‘Organizational, Institutional and Social Factors in Agricultural Diversification: Observations from the Canadian Plains’, Can. J. Agric. Econ. 44, 435–448.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gregson, M.: 1996, ‘Long Term Trends in Agricultural Specialization in the United States: Some Preliminary Results’, Agric. Hist. 70, 90–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanemann, W. M.: 2000, ‘Adaptation and its Measurement’, Clim. Change 45, 571–581.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardaker, J., Huirne, R., and Anderson, J.: 1997, Coping with Risk in Agriculture, CAB International, Wallingford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herrington, R., Johnson, B., and Hunter, F.: 1997, ‘Responding to Global Climate Change in the Prairies’, in Canada Country Study: Climate Impacts and Adaptations, Vol. III, Environment Canada, Ottawa.

  • Ilbery, B. W.: 1991, ‘Farm Diversification as an Adjustment Strategy on the Urban Fringe of the West Midlands’, J. Rural Stud. 7, 207–218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ilbery, B. and Bowler, I. R.: 1998, ‘From Agricultural Productivism to Postproductivism’,in Ilbery, B. W. (ed.), The Geography of Rural Change, Longman, London, pp. 57–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kandlikar, M. and Risbey, J.: 2000, ‘Agricultural Impacts of Climate Change: If Adaptation is the Answer, What is the Question?’, Clim. Change 45, 529–539.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, P. and Adger, W.: 2000, ‘Theory and Practice in Assessing Vulnerability to Climate Change and Facilitating Adaptation’, Clim. Change 47, 325–352.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, W., Fox, G., Hobbs, J., and Klein, K.: 1991, ‘A Review of Studies on Western Grain Transportation Policies’, Technical Paper 6/91, prepared for Agriculture Canada, Policy Branch Ottawa.

  • Knutson, R., Smith, E., Anderson, D., and Richardson, J.: 1998, ‘Southern Farmers’ Exposure to Income Risk Under the 1996 Farm Bill’, J. Agric. Appl. Econ. 30, 35–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kulshreshtha, S. and Klein, K.: 1999, ‘Implications of Compensatory Transportation Rates on Grains and Oilseeds for Diversification of the Prairie Provinces in Canada’, Ann. Regional Sci. 33, 51–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luciuk, G. and O’Brien, E.: 1999, ‘Adaptation, Agriculture and Water Resources’, Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration Paper, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Regina.

  • Martin, S. and McLeay, F.: 1998, ‘The Diversity of Farmers’ Risk Management Strategies in a Deregulated New Zealand Environment’, J. Agric. Econ. 49, 218–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mearns, L. O., Rosenzweig, C., and Goldberg, R.: 1997, ‘Mean and Variance Change in Climate Scenarios: Methods, Agricultural Applications, and Measures of Uncertainty’, Clim. Change 34, 367–396.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mendelsohn, R.: 2000, ‘Efficient Adaptation to Climate Change’, Clim. Change 45, 583–600.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mizina, S. V., Smith, J. B., Gossen, E., Spiecker, K. F., and Witkowski, S. L.: 1999, ‘An Evaluation of Adaptation Options for Climate Change Impacts on Agriculture in Kazakhstan’, Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 4, 25–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, A.: 1994, ‘Assessing the Economic Value of Weather Forecasts: An Overview of Methods, Results and Issues’, Meteorol. Appl. 1, 69–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Brien, K. and Leichenko, R.: 2000, ‘Double Exposure: Assessing the Impacts of Climate Change Within the Context of Economic Globalization’, Global Environ. Change 10, 221–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parry, M. L. and Carter, T. R.: 1985, ‘The Effect of Climatic Variations on Agricultural Risk’, Clim. Change 7, 95–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paoletti, M., Pimentel, D., Stinner, D., and Stinner, B.: 1992, ‘Agroecosystem Biodiversity: Matching Production and Conservation Biology’, Agric. Ecosystems Environ. 40, 3–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pielke, R. and Sarewitz, D.: 2002/3, ‘Wanted: Scientific Leadership on Climate’, Issues Sci. Technol. Winter.

  • Pierce, J.: 1993, ‘Agriculture, Sustainability and the Imperatives of Policy Reform’, Geoforum 24, 381–396.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pittock, B. and Jones, R.: 2000, ‘Adaptation to What and Why?’, Environ. Monit. Assess. 61, 9–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Polsky, C. and Easterling, W.: 2001, ‘Adaptation to Climatic Variability and Change in the US Great Plains: A Multi-Scaled Analysis of Ricardian Climate Sensitivities’, Agric. Ecosystems Environ. 85, 133–144.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robock, A., Turco, R., Harwell, M., Ackerman, T., Andressen, R., Chang, H., and Sivakumar, M.: 1993, ‘Use of General Circulation Model Output in the Creation of Climate Change Scenarios for Impact Analysis’, Clim. Change 23, 293–355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, N. J.: 1992, ‘Adaptation of Agriculture to Climate Change’, Clim. Change 21, 385–405.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenzweig, C. and Parry, M. L.: 1994, ‘Potential Impact of Climate Change on World Food Supply’, Nature 367, 133–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rothman, D. and Robinson, J.: 1997, ‘Growing Pains: A Conceptual Framework for Considering Integrated Assessments’, Environ. Monit. Assess. 46, 23–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, S., Easterling, W., and Mearns, L.: 2000, ‘Adaptation: Sensitivity to Natural Variability, Agent Assumptions and Dynamic Climate Changes’, Clim. Change 45, 203–221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smit, B.: 1991, ‘Decisions in Agriculture in the Face of Uncertainty: The Role of Climate Impact Assessment’,in Dzikowski, P. (ed.), Changing Climate in Relation to Sustainable Agriculture, ECA/CSAM, Fredericton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smit, B.: 1993, Adaptation to Climatic Variability and Change, Environment Canada, Guelph.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smit, B.: 1994, ‘Climate, Compensation and Adaptation’,in McCulloch, J. and Etkin, D. (eds.), Improving Responses to Atmospheric Extremes: The Role of Insurance and Compensation, Environment Canada/The Climate Institute, Toronto, pp. 229–273.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smit, B., Blain, R., and Keddie, P.: 1997, ‘Corn Hybrid Selection and Climatic Variability: Gambling with Nature?’, Can. Geogr. 42, 429–438.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smit, B., Burton, I., Klein, R. J. T., and Wandel, J.: 2000, ‘An Anatomy of Adaptation to Climate Change and Variability’, Clim. Change 45, 223–251.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smit, B., McNabb, D., and Smithers, J.: 1996, ‘Agricultural Adaptation to Climatic Variation’, Clim. Change 33, 7–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smit, B. and Pilifosova, O.: 2001, ‘Adaptation to Climate Change in the Context of Sustainable Development and Equity’,in McCarthy, J. J., Canziani, O. F., Learty, N. A., Dokken, D. J., and White, K. S. (eds.), Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, International Panel on Climate Change, Geneva, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K. and New York, U.S.A., pp. 877–912.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smit, B. and Skinner, M.: 2002, ‘Adaptation Options in Agriculture to Climate Change: A Typology’, Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 7, 85–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J. B. and Lenhart, S. S.: 1996, ‘Climate Change Adaptation Policy Options’, Clim. Res. 6, 193–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smithers, J. and Blay-Palmer, A.: 2001, ‘Technology Innovation as a Strategy for Climate Change Adaptation in Agriculture’, Appl. Geography 21, 175–197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smithers, J. and Smit, B.: 1997, ‘Human Adaptation to Climatic Variability and Change’, Global Environ. Change 7, 129–146.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sonka, S. and Patrick, G.: 1984, ‘Risk Management and Decision-Making in Agricultural Firms’,in Barry, P. (ed.), Risk Management in Agriculture, Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, IA, pp. 95–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • TAEM: 1992, ‘An Environmental Assessment of Land Use Changes due to Proposed Modifications of the Western Grain Transportation Act’, report prepared for Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Melville.

  • Timmerman, P.: 1989, ‘Everything Else Will Not Remain Equal: The Challenge of Social Research in the Face of Global Climate Warming’,Report of the First U.S.–Canada Symposium on Impacts of Climate Change on the Great Lakes Basin, Joint Report No. 1, National Climate Program Office/Canadian Climate Centre.

  • Tol, R., Fankhauser, S., and Smith, J.: 1998, ‘The Scope for Adaptation to Climate Change: What Can We Learn from the Impact Literature?’, Global Environ. Change 8, 109–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. National Research Council: 1989, Alternative Agriculture, National Academy Press, Washington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wandel, J. and Smit, B.: 2000, ‘Agricultural Risk Management in Light of Climate Variability and Change’,in Millward, H., Beesley, K., Ilbery, B., and Harrington, L. (eds.), Agricultural and Environmental Sustainability in the New Countryside, Rural Research Centre, Nova Scotia Agricultural College, Truro, pp. 30–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wheaton, E. E. and McIver, D. C.: 1999, ‘A Framework and Key Questions for Adapting to Climate Variability and Change’, Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 4, 215–225.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yohe, G.: 1992, ‘Imbedding Dynamic Responses with Imperfect Information into Static Portraits of the Regional Impact of Climate Change’,in Reilly, J. and Anderson, M. (eds.), Economic Issues in Global Climate Change (Chapter 11), Westview Press, Boulder,pp. 200–214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yohe, G.: 2000, ‘Assessing the Role of Adaptation in Evaluating Vulnerability to Climate Change’, Clim. Change 46, 371–390.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zentenr, R., Wall, D., Nagy, C., Smith, E., Young, D., Miller, C., Campbell, B., McConkey, B., Brandt, S., Lafond, G., Johnston, A., and Derkson, D.: 2002, ‘Economics of Crop Diversification and Soil Tillage Opportunities in the Canadian Prairies’, Agron. J. 93, 216–230.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Geography, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, B.C. V5A 1S6, Canada

    Ben Bradshaw, Holly Dolan & Barry Smit

Authors
  1. Ben Bradshaw
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Holly Dolan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Barry Smit
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ben Bradshaw.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bradshaw, B., Dolan, H. & Smit, B. Farm-Level Adaptation to Climatic Variability and Change: Crop Diversification in the Canadian Prairies. Climatic Change 67, 119–141 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-004-0710-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-004-0710-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation