Abstract
The current study presents a quantitative review of the discriminative and convergent validity of Implicit Association Test (IAT) measures adapted to assess sexual interest in children. IAT measures were able to distinguish sex offenders against children (SOC) from non-SOC (M weighted d from random-effects = 0.63, 95 % CI [0.42–0.83], N = 707, k = 12). The largest group differences were found between SOC and non-offenders, followed by non-sex offenders and rapists. IAT measures using sex versus not sex (and similar attribute categories, such as sex vs. neutral) provided superior discrimination compared to IAT measures using sexy versus not sexy (and similar attribute categories, such as erotic vs. non-erotic). The IAT measures had a moderate relationship to self-report (r = .27, 95 % CI [.13–.40], N = 182), sexual offense history variables (r = .27, 95 % CI [.08–.43], N = 145), and viewing time (r = .30, 95 % CI [.16–.43], N = 180) measures of sexual interest in children. Although these IAT measures can discriminate between groups and show convergence with other measures of sexual interest, a better understanding of the construct validity of these tools is required before their use in the assessment, treatment, and supervision of sex offenders.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Reference marked with an asterisk was used in the meta-analysis.
*Babchishin, K. M., Nunes, K. L., & Kessous, N. (2011). A multimodal examination of sexual interest in children. Manuscript submitted for publication.
*Banse, R., Schmidt, A. F., & Clarbour, J. (2010). Indirect measures of sexual interest in child sex offenders: A multimethod approach. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37, 319–335. doi:10.1177/0093854809357598.
Barsetti, I., Earls, C. M., Lalumière, M. L., & Bélanger, N. (1998). The differentiation of intrafamilial and extrafamilial heterosexual child molesters. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13, 275–286. doi:10.1177/088626098013002007.
Beitchman, J. H., Zucker, K. J., Hood, J. E., DaCosta, G. A., Akman, D., & Cassavia, E. (1992). A review of the long-term effects of child sexual abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 16, 101–118. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(92)90011-F.
Blanchard, R., Klassen, P., Dickey, R., Kuban, M. E., & Blak, T. (2001). Sensitivity and specificity of the phallometric test for pedophilia in nonadmitting sex offenders. Psychological Assessment, 13, 118–126. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.13.1.118.
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L., Higgins, J., & Rothstein, H. R. (2005). Comprehensive meta-analysis (Version 2). Englewood, NJ: Biostat, Inc.
*Brown, A., Gray, N. S., & Snowden, R. J. (2009). Implicit measurement of sexual preferences in child sex abusers. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 21, 166–180. doi:10.1177/1079063209332234.
Browne, A., & Finkelhor, D. (1986). Impact of child sexual abuse: A review of the research. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 66–77. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.99.1.66.
Canales, D. D., Olver, M. E., & Wong, S. C. P. (2009). Construct validity of the violence risk scale-sexual offender version for measuring sexual deviance. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 21, 474–492. doi:10.1177/1079063209344990.
Chivers, M. L., Seto, M. C., Lalumière, M. L., Laan, E., & Grimbos, T. (2010). Agreement of self-reported and genital measures of sexual arousal in men and women: A meta-analysis. Archives of Sexual Behaviors, 39, 5–56. doi:10.1007/s10508-009-9556-9.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Cumming, G., & Finch, S. (2005). Inference by eye: Confidence intervals, and how to read pictures of data. American Psychologist, 60, 170–180. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.60.2.170.
Cunningham, W. A., Preacher, K. J., & Banaji, M. R. (2001). Implicit attitude measures: Consistency, stability, and convergent validity. Psychological Science, 121, 163–170. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00328.
Cvencek, D., Greenwald, A. G., Brown, A., Snowden, R., & Gray, N. (2010). Faking of the Implicit Association Test is statistically detectable and partly correctable. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 32, 302–314. doi:10.1177/1079063209332234.
Fazio, R. H., & Olson, M. A. (2003). Implicit measures in social cognition research: Their meaning and use. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 297–327. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145225.
Feinstein, A. R., & Cicchetti, D. V. (1990). High agreement but low kappa: The problems of two paradoxes. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 43, 543–549. doi:10.1016/0895-4356.
Finkelhor, D. (1984). Child sexual abuse: New theory and research. New York: Free Press.
Finkelhor, D. (1994). Current information on the scope and nature of child sexual abuse. The Future of Children, 4, 31–53. doi:10.2307/1602522.
Freund, K., & Watson, R. J. (1991). Assessment of the sensitivity and specificity of a phallometric test: An update of phallometric diagnosis of pedophilia. Psychological Assessment, 3, 254–260. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.3.2.254.
Gannon, T. A., Keown, K., & Polaschek, D. L. L. (2007). Increasing honest responding on cognitive distortions in child molesters: The bogus pipeline revisited. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 19, 5–22. doi:10.1177/107906320701900103.
Gannon, T. A., Ward, T., & Collie, R. (2007). Cognitive distortions in child molesters: Theoretical and research developments over the past two decades. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 12, 402–416. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2006.09.005.
Gawronski, B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2006). Associative and propositional processes in evaluation: An integrative review of implicit and explicit attitude change. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 692–731. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.5.692.
*Gray, N. S., Brown, A. S., MacCulloch, M. J., Smith, J., & Snowden, R. J. (2005). An Implicit Association Test of the associations between children and sex in pedophiles. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 304–308. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.114.2.304.
Greenwald, A. G. (2004, January). Revised top 10 list of things wrong with the IAT. Invited presentation at Attitudes Preconference of the 5th annual meeting of the Society of Personality and Social Psychology, Austin, TX.
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102, 4–27. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.102.1.4.
Greenwald, A. G., & Farnham, S. D. (2000). Using the Implicit Association Test to measure self-esteem and self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 1022–1038. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.79.6.1022.
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464–1480. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.74.6.1464.
Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 197–216. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.197.
Hall, G. C. N., & Hirschman, R. (1992). Sexual aggression against children: A conceptual perspective of etiology. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 19, 8–23. doi:10.1177/0093854892019001003.
Hanson, R. K., & Morton-Bourgon, K. (2004). Predictors of sexual recidivism: An updated meta-analysis (User Report #2004-02). Ottawa, ON: Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Canada.
Hanson, R. K., & Thornton, D. (2000). Improving risk assessments for sex offenders: A comparison of three actuarial scales. Law and Human Behavior, 24, 119–136. doi:10.1023/A:1005482921333.
Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E., Cormier, C. A., & Quinsey, V. L. (1998). Dissimulation in phallometric testing of rapists’ sexual preferences. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 28, 223–232. doi:0004-0002/99/0600-0223.
Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E., Quinsey, V. L., & Chaplin, T. C. (1996). Viewing time as a measure of sexual interest among child molesters and normal heterosexual men. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34, 389–394. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(95)00070-4.
Hasselblad, V., & Hedges, L. V. (1995). Meta-analysis of screening and diagnostic tests. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 167–178. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.117.1.167.
Hedges, L. V. (1982). Fitting continuous models to effect size data. Journal of Educational Statistics, 7, 245–270. doi:10.3102/10769986007004245.
Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. New York: Academic Press.
Hedges, L. V., & Vevea, J. L. (1998). Fixed- and random-effects models in meta-analysis. Psychological Methods, 3, 486–504. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.3.4.486.
Helmus, L., Thornton, D., Hanson, R. K., & Babchishin, K. M. (2012). Improving the predictive accuracy of Static-99 and Static-2002 with older sex offenders: Revised age weights. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 24, 64–101. doi:10.1177/1079063211409951.
Higgins, J. P. T., & Thompson, S. G. (2004). Controlling the risk of spurious findings from meta-regression. Statistics in Medicine, 23, 1663–1682. doi:10.1002/sim.1752.
Higgins, J. P. T., Thompson, S. G., Deeks, J. J., & Altman, D. G. (2003). Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. British Medical Journal, 327, 557–560. doi:10.1136/bmj.327.7414.557.
Horley, J. (2000). Cognitions supportive of child molestation. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 5, 551–564. doi:10.1016/S1359-1789(98)00042-1.
Jajodia, A., & Earleywine, M. (2003). Measuring alcohol expectancies with the Implicit Association Test. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 17, 126–133. doi:10.1037/0893-164X.17.2.126.
Kalmus, E., & Beech, A. R. (2005). Forensic assessment of sexual interest: A review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10, 193–217. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2003.12.002.
Kazdin, A. E. (2003). Research design in clinical psychology (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Kim, D. Y. (2003). Voluntary controllability of the Implicit Association Test (IAT). Social Psychology Quarterly, 66, 83–96. doi:10.2307/3090143.
Landis, J. R., & Koch, G. G. (1977). The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics, 33, 159–174. doi:10.2307/2529310.
Launay, G. (1999). The phallometric assessment of sex offenders: An update. Criminal behaviour and Mental Health, 9, 254–274. doi:10.1002/cbm.317.
Laws, D. R. (1986). Sexual deviance card sort. Unpublished manuscript, Florida Mental Health Institute, Tampa, FL.
Lipsey, M. W. (2003). Those confounded moderators in meta-analysis: Good, bad, and ugly. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 587, 69–81. doi:10.1177/0002716202250791.
Looman, J., & Marshall, W. L. (2001). Phallometric assessments designed to detect arousal to children: The responses of rapists and child molesters. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 13, 3–13. doi:10.1177/107906320101300102.
Marshall, W. L., Anderson, D., & Fernandez, Y. (1999). Cognitive behavioral treatment of sexual offenders. New York: Wiley.
Marshall, W. L., & Eccles, A. (1991). Issues in clinical practice with sex offenders. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 6, 68–93. doi:10.1177/088626091006001006.
Marshall, W. L., & Fernandez, Y. M. (2000). Phallometric testing with sexual offenders: Limits to its value. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 807–822. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(99)00013-6.
*Mihailides, S., Devilly, G. J., & Ward, T. (2004). Implicit cognitive distortions and sexual offending. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 16, 333–350. doi:10.1023/B:SEBU.0000043327.10168.5b.
Nichols, H. R., & Molinder, I. (2000). Multiphasic Sex Inventory (2nd ed.). Tacoma, WA: Crime and Victim Psychology Specialists.
Nosek, B. A., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2005). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: II. Method variables and construct validity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 166–180. doi:10.1177/0146167204271418.
Nosek, B. A., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2007). The Implicit Association Test at age 7: A methodological and conceptual review. In J. A. Bargh (Ed.), Automatic processes in social thinking and behavior (pp. 265–292). New York: Psychology Press.
Nosek, B. A., & Smyth, F. L. (2007). A multitrait–multimethod validation of the Implicit Association Test. Experimental Psychology, 54, 14–29. doi:10.1027/1618-3169.54.1.14.
*Nunes, K. L., Firestone, P., & Baldwin, M. W. (2007). Indirect assessment of cognitions of child sexual abusers with the Implicit Association Test. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 454–475. doi:10.1177/0093854806291703.
*Ó Ciardha, C. (2009). Uses of implicit cognitive measures in the assessment of sex offenders. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Trinity College, Dublin.
Ó Ciardha, C. (2011). A theoretical framework for understanding deviant sexual interest and cognitive distortions as overlapping constructs contributing to sexual offending against children. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 16, 493–502. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2011.05.001.
Olson, M. A., & Fazio, R. H. (2009). Implicit and explicit measures of attitudes: The perspective of the MODE model. In R. E. Petty, R. H. Fazio, & P. Briñol (Eds.), Attitudes: Insights from the new implicit measures (pp. 19–63). New York: Psychology Press.
Orwin, R. (1983). A fail-safe N for effect size in meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Statistics, 8, 157–159. doi:10.3102/10769986008002157.
Paolucci, E. O., Genuis, M. L., & Violato, C. (2001). A meta-analysis of the published research on the effects of child sexual abuse. Journal of Psychology, 135, 17–36. doi:10.1080/00223980109603677.
Poehlman, T. A., Uhlmann, E. L., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2009). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 17–41. doi:10.1037/a0015575.
Rice, M. E., & Harris, G. T. (2005). Comparing effect sizes in follow-up studies: ROC area, Cohen’s d, and r. Law and Human Behavior, 29, 615–620. doi:10.1007/s10979-005-6832-7.
*Schmidt, A. F., & Banse, R. (2010, July). Indirect measures of sexual interest in child sex offenders: A multimethod approach and its clinical implications. Paper presented at the International Summer Conference in Forensic Psychiatry, Regensburg.
*Schmidt, A. F., Gykiere, K., Vanhoeck, K., Mann, R. E., & Banse, R. (2011). Direct and indirect measures of sexual maturity preferences differentiate subtypes of child sex abusers. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Schmidt, F. L., Oh, I., & Hayes, T. L. (2009). Fixed- versus random-effects models in meta-analysis: Model properties and an empirical comparison of differences in results. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 62, 97–128. doi:10.1348/000711007X255327.
Seto, M. C. (2004). Pedophilia and sexual offenses against children. Annual Review of Sex Research, 15, 321–361. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.032408.153618.
Seto, M. C. (2008). Pedophilia and sexual offending against children: Theory, assessment, and intervention. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Seto, M. C., & Lalumière, M. L. (2001). A brief screening scale to identify pedophilic interests among child molesters. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 13, 15–25. doi:10.1023/A:1009510328588.
Seto, M. C., Murphy, W. D., Page, J., & Ennis, L. (2003). Detecting anomalous sexual interests in juvenile sex offenders. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 989, 118–130. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb07298.x.
Snowden, R. J., Craig, R. L., & Gray, N. S. (2011). Indirect behavioral measures of cognition among sexual offenders. Journal of Sex Research, 48, 192–217. doi:10(1080/00224499),2011,557750.
Spiering, M., & Everaerd, W. (2007). The sexual unconscious. In E. Janssen (Ed.), The psychophysiology of sex (pp. 166–184). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
*Steffens, M. C., Yundina, E., & Panning, M. (2008). Automatic associations with “erotic” in child sexual offenders: Identifying those in danger of reoffence. Sexual Offender Treatment, 3, 1–9.
*Thornton, D., McKee, R., & Ó Ciardha, C. (2009, October). Convergent and divergent validity of implicit measures of sexual interest among SVPs. Paper presented at the meeting of the Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abuse, Dallas, TX.
Tryon, W. W. (2001). Evaluating statistical significance difference, equivalence, and indeterminacy using inferential confidence intervals: An integrated alternative method of conducting null hypothesis statistical tests. Psychological Methods, 6, 371–386. doi:10.1037//1082-989x.6.4.371.
*van Leeuwen, M. L., van Baaren, R. B., Chakhssi, F., Loonen, M. G. M., Lippman, M., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2011). Detecting implicit associations in non-incarcerated pedophiles: Exploring generalizability, specificity and behavior predictability. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Ward, T., & Beech, A. (2006). An integrated theory of sexual offending. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 11, 44–63. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2005.05.002.
Ward, T., Hudson, S. M., Johnston, L., & Marshall, W. L. (1997). Cognitive distortions in sex offenders: An integrative review. Clinical Psychology Review, 17, 479–507. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(97)81034-3.
Wormith, J. S. (1986). Assessing deviant sexual arousal: Physiological and cognitive aspects. Advances in Behaviour Research & Therapy, 8, 101–137. doi:10.1016/0146-6402(86)90001-9.
Acknowledgments
Thank you to Caoilte Ó Ciardha, Alexander Schmidt, Melanie Steffens, and Matthijs Lars van Leeuwen who took the time to share unpublished data with us and answered our questions. Funding for this project was provided, in part, by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Babchishin, K.M., Nunes, K.L. & Hermann, C.A. The Validity of Implicit Association Test (IAT) Measures of Sexual Attraction to Children: A Meta-Analysis. Arch Sex Behav 42, 487–499 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-0022-8
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-0022-8