Abstract
Mycoplasma, the smallest self-replicating life-forms, are responsible for a variety of diseases in humans, domestic animals, insects, and plants. Although the exact role of these organisms in wildlife is not available, now it is increasingly recognized that mycoplasmosis is an emerging disease in many wildlife populations. As only scattered data regarding these are available, an attempt has been made to assemble the available literature. To our knowledge, this is the first review paper regarding mycoplasmosis in wildlife. The outbreaks of mycoplasmoses such as contagious pleuropneumonia (CCPP), infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC), Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae and Mycoplasma capricolum subspp. capricolum infections, and contagious agalactia in wild ruminants; mycoplasmosis in raccoons; upper respiratory tract disease (URTD) and Mycoplasma crocodyli and Mycoplasma alligatoris infections in wild reptiles; and house finch conjunctivitis are showing that the prevalence of mycoplasmosis in wildlife has reached an alarming level, thus raising concerns for the conservation of many endangered species in captivity and free-ranging populations. These also emphasize the urgent need for increased surveillance and control of mycoplasma in wildlife. Some control approaches that can be followed are prevention of the spillover from domestic livestock and birds, proper quarantine of newly received animals along with mycoplasma screening, isolation of affected and suspected animals, screening of mycoplasmoses before the release of captive animals into free-ranging population, etc. At the same time, the previous dogma that mycoplasma have strict host specificity should be reconsidered in the light of new findings.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adrian WJ (1984) Investigation of disease as a limiting factor in a wild turkey population. Ph.D. Dissertation, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, p 61
Al-Aubaidi JM, Taylor WD, Bubash GR, Dardiri AH (1972) Identification and characterization of M. arginini from bighorn sheep (Ovis canadiensis) and goats. Am J Vet Res 33:87–90
Arif A, Schulz J, Thiaucourt F, Taha A, Hammer S (2007) Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia outbreak in captive wild ungulates at Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation, State of Qatar. J Zoo Wildl Med 38:93–96
Arnal M, Herrero J, de la Fe C, Revilla M, Prada C, Carlos P, Martinez-Duran D, Gómez-Martin A, Fernandez-Arberas O, Amores J, Contreras A, Garcia-Serrano A, Luco DF (2013) Dynamics of an infectious keratoconjunctivitis outbreak by Mycoplasma conjunctivae on Pyrenean Chamois (Rupicapra p. pyrenaica). PLoS ONE 8:e61887
Baker AS, Ruoff KL, Madoff S (1998) Isolation of Mycoplasma species from a patient with seal finger. Clin Infect Dis 27:1168–1170
Barile MF (1973) Mycoplasmal flora of simians. J Infect Dis 127:S17–S20
Beck B, Smith TG (1976a) Seal finger: an unsolved medical problem in Canada. Can Med Assoc J 115:105–107
Beck B, Smith TG (1976b) Seal finger: an unsolved medical problem in Canada. Can Med Assoc J 115:105
Belloy L, Janovsky M, Vilei EM, Pilo P, Giacometti M, Frey J (2003) Molecular epidemiology of Mycoplasma conjunctivae in Caprinae: transmission across species in natural outbreaks. Appl Env Microbiol 69:1913–1919
Besser TE, Cassirer EF, Potter KA, VanderSchalie J, Fischer A, Knowles DP, Herndon DR, Rurangirwa FR, Weiser GC, Srikumaran S (2008) Association of Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae infection with population-limiting respiratory disease in free-ranging Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis canadensis). J Clin Microbiol 46:423–430
Besser TE, Highland M, Baker K, Cassirer EF, Anderson NJ, Ramsey JM, Mansfield K, Bruning DL, Wolff P, Smith JB, Jenks JA (2012) Causes of pneumonia epizootics among bighorn sheep, western United States, 2008–2010. Emerg Infect Dis 18:406–414
Black SR, Barker IK, Mehren KG, Crawshaw GJ, Rosendal S, Ruhnke L, Thorsen J, Carman PS (1988) An epizootic of Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae infection in captive Dall’s sheep (Ovis dalli dalli). J Wildl Dis 24:627–635
Bradbury JM, Vuillaume A, Dupiellet JP, Forrest M, Bind JL, Gaillard-Perrin G (1987) Isolation of Mycoplasma cloacale from a number of different avian hosts in great Britain and France. Avian Pathol 16:183–186
Brown DR, Demcovitz DL, Plourdé DR, Potter SM, Hunt ME, Jones RD, Rotstein DS (2004a) Mycoplasma iguanae sp. nov., from a green iguana (Iguana iguana) with vertebral disease. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 56:761–764
Brown DR, Farley JM, Zacher LA, Carleton JMR, Clippinger TL, Tully JG, Brown MB (2001) Mycoplasma alligatoris sp. nov., a new species from American alligators. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 51:419–424
Brown DR, Merritt JL, Jacobson ER, Klein PA, Tully JG, Brown MB (2004b) Mycoplasma testudineum sp. nov., from a desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) with upper respiratory tract disease. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 54:1527–1529
Brown, DR, Schumacher IM, McLaughlin GS, Wendland LD, Brown MB, Klein PA, Jacobson ER (2002) Application of diagnostic tests for mycoplasmal infections of desert and gopher tortoises, with management recommendations. Chelonian Conserv Biol 4:497–507
Brown DR, Zacher LA, Farmerie WG (2004c) Spreading factors of Mycoplasma alligatoris, a flesh-eating mycoplasma. J Bacteriol 186:3922–3927
Brown MB, Schumacher IM, Klein PA, Harris K, Correll T, Jacobson ER (1994) Mycoplasma agassizii causes upper respiratory tract disease in the desert tortoise. Infect Immun 62:4580–4586
Brown TM, Clark HW, Bailey JS, Gray CW (1971) A mechanistic approach to treatment of rheumatoid type arthritis naturally occurring in a gorilla. Trans Am Clin Climatol Assoc 82:227–247
Calderon-Copete SP, Wigger G, Wunderlin C, Schmidheini T, Frey J, Quail MA, Falquet L (2009) The Mycoplasma conjunctivae genome sequencing, annotation and analysis. BMC Bioinforma 10:S7
Clark HW, Bailey JS, Laughlin DC, Brown TM (1978) Isolation of mycoplasma from the genital tracts of elephants. Zentralbl Bakteriol Parasitenkd Infektionskr Hyg Abt Ori 241:262
Clark HW, Bailey JS, Brown TM (1976) Mycoplasma hypersensitivity reactions. Proc Soc Gen Microbiol 111:171
Clark HW, Coker-Vann MR, Bailey JS, Brown TM (1988) Detection of mycoplasmal antigens in immune complexes from rheumatoid arthritis synovial fluids. Ann Allergy 60:394–398
Clark HW, Laughlin DC, Bailey JS, Brown TM (1980) Mycoplasma species and arthritis in elephants. J Zoo Anim Med 11:3–15
Clippinger TL, Bennett RA, Johnson CM, Vliet KA, Deem SL, Oros J, Jacobson ER, Schumacher IM, Brown DR, Brown MB (2000) Morbidity and mortality associated with a new mycoplasma species from captive American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). J Zoo Wildl Med 31:303–314
Cole BC, Ward JR, Golightly Rowland L, Graham CE (1970) Characterization of mycoplasmas isolated from the great apes. Can J Microbiol 16:1331–1339
Cookson KC, Shivaprasad HL (1994) Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection in chukar partridges, pheasants, and peafowl. Avi Dis 38:914–921
Daszak P, Cunningham AA, Hyatt AD (2000) Emerging infectious diseases of wildlife-threats to biodiversity and human health. Science 287:443–449
Davidson M, Thomas L (1968) Mycoplasma in primates. Bacterial Proc 68:79
Degiorgis MP, Frey J, Nicolet J, Abdo EM, Fatzer R, Schlatter Y, Reist S, Janovsky M, Giacometti M (2000) An outbreak of infectious keratoconjunctivitis in Alpine chamois (Rupicapra r. rupicapra) in Simmental-Gruyeres, Switzeland. Schweiz Arch Tierheilkd 142:520–527
Del-Giudice RA, Carski TR, Barile MF, Yamashiroya HM, Verna JE (1969) Recovery of human mycoplasmas from simian tissues. Nature 222:1088–1089
Dhondt AA, Badyaev AV, Dobson AP, Hawley DM, Driscoll MJL, Hochachka WM, Ley DH (2006) Dynamics of mycoplasmal conjunctivitis in the native and introduced range of the host. Ecohealth 3:95–102
Dhondt AA, Tessaglia DL, Slothower RL (1998) Epidemic mycoplasmal conjunctivitis in house finches from eastern North America. J Wildl Dis 34:265–280
Duckworth RA, Badyaev AV, Farmer KL, Hill GE, Roberts SR (2003) First case of mycoplasmosis in the native range of the house finch (Carpodacus mexicanus). Auk 120:528–530
Eadie PA, Lee TC, Niazi Z, Lawlor D (1990) Seal finger in a wildlife ranger. Ir Med J 83:117–118
Erdelyi K, Tenk M, Dan A (1999) Mycoplasmosis associated perosis type skeletal deformity in a saker falcon nestling in Hungary. J Wildl Dis 35:586–590
Farkas SL, Gal J (2009) Adenovirus and mycoplasma infection in an ornate box turtle (Terrapene ornata ornata) in Hungary. Vet Microbiol 138:169–173
Feldman SH, Wimsatt J, Marchang RE, Johnson AJ, Brown W, Mitchell JC, Sleeman JM (2006) A novel Mycoplasma detected in association with upper respiratory disease syndrome in free-ranging eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) in Virginia. J Wildl Dis 42:279–289
Fischer JR, Stallknecht DC, Luttrell P, Dhondt AA, Converse KA (1997) Mycoplasmal conjunctivitis in wild songbirds: the spread of a new contagious disease in a mobile host population. Emerg Infecti Dis 3:69–72
Foreyt WJ, Jessup DA (1982) Fatal pneumonia of bighorn sheep following association with domestic sheep. J Wildl Dis 18:163–168
Forsyth MH, Tully JG, Gorton TS, Hinckley L, Frasca S, Van Kruiningen HJ, Geary SJ (1996) Mycoplasma sturni sp.nov. from the conjunctiva of a European starling (Sturnus vulgaris). Int J Syst Bact 46:716–719
Fowler ME, Mikota SK (2006) Biology, medicine and surgery of elephants, 1st edn. Blackwell, USA, pp 143–144
Friend M (2006) Disease emergence and resurgence: the wildlife–human connection. Reston, VA, U.S. Geological Survey, Circular 1285, 400 p
Fritz BA, Thomas CB, Yuill TM (1992) Serological and microbial survey of Mycoplasma gallisepticum in wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) from six western states. J Wildlife Dis 28:10–20
Garg DN, Singh Y (2009) Zoonotic mycoplasmoses: waiting to happen. In: Singh F, Tripathi J (eds) Food safety quality assurance and global trade: concerns and strategies. Int Book Dist Coy, Lucknow, pp 167–172
Giacometti M, Janovsky M, Jenny H, Nicolet J, Belloy L, Goldschmidt-Clermont E, Frey J (2002) Mycoplasma conjunctivae infection is not maintained in alpine chamois in eastern Switzerland. J Wildl Dis 38:297–304
Giacometti M, Nicolet J, Johansson KE, Naglic T, Degiorgis MP, Frey J (1999) Detection and identification of M. conjunctivae in infectious keratoconjunctivitis by PCR based on the 16S rRNA gene. J Vet Med 46:173–180
Giangaspero M, Orusa R, Nicholas RAJ, Harasawa R, Ayling RD, Churchward CP, Whatmore A, Bradley D, Robetto S, Sacchi L, Domenis L (2010) Characterization of mycoplasma isolated from an ibex (Capra ibex) suffering from keratoconjunctivitis in northern Italy. J Wildlife Dis 46:1070–1078
Giebel J, Bindera A, Kirchhoff H (1990) Isolation of Mycoplasma moatsii from the intestine of wild Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus). Vet Microbiol 22:23–29
Goldberg DR, Samuel MD, Thomas CB, Sharp P, Krapu GL, Robb JR, Kenow KP, Korschgen CE, Chipley WH, Conroy MJ, Kleven SH (1995) The occurrence of mycoplasmas in selected wild American waterfowl. J Wildlife Dis 31:378–385
Guimaraes AMS, Javorouski ML, Bonat M, Lacerda O, Balbinotti B, Queiroz LGPB, Timenetsky J, Biondo AW, Messick JB (2007) Molecular detection of “Candidatus mycoplasma haemominutum” in a lion (Panthera leo) from a Brazilian zoological garden. Rev Inst Med Trop S Paulo 49:195–196
Haefner M, Burke TJ, Kitchell BE (2003) Identification of Haemobartonella felis (Mycoplasma haemofelis) in captive nondomestic cats. J Zoo Wildl Med 34:139–143
Hartup BK, Kollias GV, Ley DH (2000) Mycoplasmal conjunctivitis in song birds from New York. J Wildl Dis 36:257–264
Hawley DM, Osnas EE, Dobson AP, Hochachka WM, Ley DH, Dhondt AA (2013) Parallel patterns of increased virulence in a recently emerged wildlife pathogen. PLoS Biol 11(5):e1001570
Heywood JT, Sabry M, Dowdle WR (1969) Characterization of mycoplasma species of feline origin. Amer J Vet Res 30:615–622
Hill A (1975) Comparison of mycoplasmas isolated from captive wild felines. Res Vet Sci 18:139–143
Hill AC (1985) Mycoplasma testudinis, a new species isolated from a tortoise. Int J Syst Bacteriol 35:489–492
Hill AC (1986) Mycoplasma felifaucium, a new species isolated from the respiratory tract of pumas. J Gen Microbiol 132:1923–1928
Hill AC (1992) Mycoplasma simbae sp. nov., Mycoplasma leopharyngis sp. nov. and Mycoplasma leocaptivus sp. nov. isolated from lions. Int J Syst Bacteriol 42:518–523
Hill AC (1993) Mycoplasma indiense sp. nov., isolated from the throats of nonhuman primates. Int J Syst Bacteriol 43:36–40
Hillenbrand FKM (1953) Whale finger and seal finger their relation to erysipeloid. Lancet 1:680–682
Hochachka WM, Dhondt AA (2000) Density-dependent decline of host abundance resulting from a new infectious disease, 97th edn. PNAS, USA, pp 303–530
Hochachka WM, Dhondt AA, Dobson A, Hawley DM, Ley DH, Lovette IJ (2013) Multiple host transfers, but only one successful lineage in a continent-spanning emergent pathogen. Proc Biol Sci 280:20131068
Hoffman RW, Luttrel MP, Davidson WR, Ley DH (1997) Mycoplasma in wild turkeys living in association with domestic fowl. J Wildlife Dis 33:526–535
Hollamby S, Sikarskie JG, Stuht J (2003) Survey of peafowl (Pavo cristatus) for potential pathogens at three Michigan zoos. J Zoo Wildlife Med 34:375–379
Homer BL, Berry KH, Brown MB, Ellis G, Jacobson ER (1998) Pathology of diseases in wild desert tortoises from California. J Wildlife Dis 34:508–523
Hutchison VE, Pinkerton ME, Kalter SS (1970) Incidence of mycoplasma in nonhuman primates. Lab Anim Care 20:914–922
Jacobson ER, Gaskin JM, Brown MB, Harris RK, Gardiner CH, Lapointe JL, Adams HP, Reggiardo C (1991) Chronic upper respiratory disease of free-ranging desert tortoises (Xerobates agassizii). J Wildlife Dis 27:296–316
Jain NC, Chandiramani NK, Singh IP (1971) Studies in avian pleuropneumonia-like organisms. Occurrence of Mycoplasma in wild birds. Indian J Ani Sci 41:301–305
Janovsky M, Frey J, Nicolet J, Belloy L, Giacometti M (2002) Mycoplasma conjunctivae is maintained in domestic sheep but not in alpine chamois in the Swiss Alps. European Association of Zoo- and Wildlife Veterinarians (EAZWV) 4th scientific meeting, joint with the annual meeting of the European Wildlife Disease Association (EWDA) May 8–12, 2002, Heidelberg, Germany
Jansen BD, Heffelfinger JR, Noon TH, Krausman PR, deVos JC (2006) Infectious keratoconjunctivitis in bighorn sheep, Silver Bell Mountains, Arizona, USA. J Wildl Dis 42:407–411
Johnsrude JD, Christopher MM, Lung NP, Brown MB (1996) Isolation of M. felis from a serval (Felis serval) with severe respiratory disease. J Wildl Dis 32:691–694
Kanamoto Y, Kotani H, Ogata M, Fukumoto Y (1981) Isolation of mycoplasmas from raccoon dog(Nyctereutes procyonoides viverrinus), fox (Vulpes culpes japonica), Japanese badger (Meles meles anakuma). Japan J Vet Sci 43:267–271
Katoch RC, Chandiramani NK (1975) Isolation of Mycoplasma species from squirrels (Ratufa indica). Indian Vet J 52:850–852
Kirchhoff H, Binder A, Runge M, Meier B, Jacobs R, Busche K (1989) Pathogenetic mechanisms in the Mycoplasma arthritidis polyarthritis of rats. Rheumatol Int 9:193–196
Kirchhoff H, Mohan K, Schmidt R, Runge M, Brown DR, Brown MB, Foggin CM, Muvavarirwa P, Lehmann H, Flossdorf J (1997) Mycoplasma crocodyli sp. nov., a new species from crocodiles. Int J Syst Bacteriol 47:742–746
Kirchhoff H, Schmidt R, Lehmann H, Clark HW, Hill AC (1996) M. elephantis sp. nov., a new species from elephants. Int J Syst Bacteriol 46:437–441
Kleven SH (1997) Other mycoplasmal infections. Diseases of poultry, 10th edn. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa, pp 232–234
Kock RA, Kock MD, Cleaveland S, Thomson G (2010) Health and disease in wild rangelands. In: Du-Toit JT, Kock RA, Deutsch JC (eds) Wild range lands conserving wildlife while maintaining livestock in semi-arid ecosystems. Wiley Blackwell, Oxford, pp 98–128
Koshimizu K, Magaribuchi T, Yamamoto K, Ogata M (1975) Characterization of mycoplasmas isolated from imported nonhuman primates. Exp Anim 24:95–101
Kundsin RB, Rowell T, Shepard MC (1975) T-strain mycoplasmas and reproductive failure in monkeys. Lab Anim Sci 25:221–224
Langford EV (1974) Acholeplasma laidlawii and Pasteurella multocida isolated from the pneumonic lung of a lynx. J Wildl Dis 10:420–422
Lecis R, Chessa B, Cacciotto C, Addis MF, Coradduzza E, Berlinguer F, Muzzeddu M, Lierz M, Carcangiu L, Pittau M, Alberti A (2010) Identification and characterization of novel Mycoplasma spp. belonging to the hominis group from griffon vultures. Res Vet Sci 89:58–64
Lecis R, Paglietti B, Rubino S, Are BM, Muzzeddu M, Berlinguer F, Chessa B, Pittau M, Alberti A (2011) Detection and characterization of Mycoplasma spp. and Salmonella spp. in free-living European tortoises (Testudo hermanni, Testudo graeca, and Testudo marginata). J Wildl Dis 47:717–724
Leon L, Alonso F, Cubero MJ (1994) Aproximacion al estado sanitario de los corzos Andaluces. In El corzo Andaluz, F. Braza, S. San Jose, S.Aragon and J. R. Delibes (eds.). Environmental Council of Regional Government of Andalusia, Sevilla, Spain, pp 85–97
Ley DH, Berkhoff JE, McLaren JM (1996) Mycoplasma gallisepticum isolated from house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus) with conjunctivitis. Avian Dis 40:480–483
Ley DH, Geary SJ, Berkhoff JE, McLaren JM, Levisohn S (1998) Mycoplasma sturni from blue jays and northern mocking birds with conjunctivitis in Florida. J Wildl Dis 34:403–406
Ley DH, Sheaffer DS, Dhondt AA (2006) Further western spread of Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection of house finches. J Wildl Dis 42:429–431
Lierz M, Hagen N, Harcourt-Brown N, Hernandez-Divers SJ, Luschow D, Hafez HM (2007) Prevalence of mycoplasmas in eggs from birds of prey using culture and a genus-specific mycoplasma polymerase chain reaction. Avian Pathol 36:145–150
Lierz M, Jansen A, Hafez HM (2008) Avian Mycoplasma lipofaciens transmission to veterinarian. Emerg Infect Dis 14:1161–1163
Lo SC, Wear DJ, Shib JW, Wang RY, Newton PB, Rodriguez JF (1993) Fatal systemic infections of nonhuman primates by Mycoplasma fermentans (incognitus strain). Clin Infect Dis 17:S283–S288
Luttrell MP, Eleazer TH, Kleven SH (1992a) Mycoplasma gallopavonis in eastern wild turkeys. J Wildlife Dis 28:288–291
Luttrell MP, Kleven SH, Mahnke GM (1992b) Mycoplasma synoviae in a released pen raised wild turkey. Avian Dis 36:169–171
Luttrell MP, Stallknecht DE, Kleven SH, Kavanaugh DM, Corn JL, Fischer JR (2001) Mycoplasma gallisepticum in house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus) and other wild birds associated with poultry production facilities. Avian Dis 45:321–329
Madden DL, Henderson WH, Moses HE (1967) Isolation of Mycoplasma gallisepticum from bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus). Avian Dis 11:378–380
Madden DL, Hildebrandt RJ, Monif GRG, London WT, Sever JL, McCullough NB (1970) The isolation and identification of mycoplasma from Macaca mulatta. Lab Anim Care 20:467–470
Madden DL, Moats KE, London WT, Matthew EB, Sever JL (1974) Mycoplasma moatsii, a new species isolated from recently imported grivet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops). Int J Syst Bacteriol 24:459–464
Markham RB, Polk BF (1979) Seal finger. Rev Infecti Dis 1:567–569
Martinez-Lahoz A, Kalter SS, Pinkerton ME, Hayflick L (1970) Similarities of mycoplasma species isolated from man and from nonhuman primates. Ann N Y Acad Sci 174:820–827
Mayer D, Nicolet J, Giacometti M, Schmitt M, Wahli T, Meier W (1996) Isolation of Mycoplasma conjuctivae from conjuctival swabs of Alpine ibex (Capra ibex ibex) affected with infectious keratoconjunctivitis. J Vet Med B 43:155–161
McLaughlin GS (1997) Upper respiratory tract disease in gopher tortoises, Gopherus polyphemus: pathology, immune responses, transmission, and implications for conservation and management. Dissertation, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA, 110 pp
McLaughlin GS, Jacobson ER, Brown DR, McKenna CE, Schumacher IM, Adams HP, Brown MB, Klein PA (2000) Pathology of upper respiratory tract disease of gopher tortoises in Florida. J Wildl Dis 36:272–283
Messick JB (2004) Hemotrophic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas): a review and new insights into pathogenic potential. Vet Clin Pathol 33:2–13
Michel JC, de Thoisy B, Contamin H (2000) Chemotherapy of haemobartonellosis in squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus). J Med Primatol 29:85–87
Mikaelian I, Ley DH, Claveau R, Lemieux M, Berube J (2001) Mycoplasmosis in evening and pine grosbeaks with conjunctivitis in Quebec. J Wildlife Dis 37:826–830
Misra PR, Patra SK, Mohapatra HK, Patra KC, Mohapatra S (1996) Aetiopathological findings from young gharial mortality cases. Indian Vet J 73:888–889
Mitchell JC, Klemens MW (2000) Primary and secondary effects of habitat alteration. In: Klemens MW (ed) Turtle conservation. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C, pp 5–32
Mohan K, Foggin CM, Muvavarirwa P, Honeywill J, Pawandiwa A (1995) Mycoplasma associated polyarthritis in farmed crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) in Zimbabwe. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 62:45–49
Mohan K, Foggin CM, Muvavarirwa P, Honywill J (1997) Vaccination of farmed crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) against M. crocodyli infection. Vet Rec 141:476
Moller BR, Freundt EA, Black FT (1978) Experimental infection of the genital tract of female grivet monkeys by Mycoplasma hominis. Infect Immun 20:248–257
Neimark H, Johansson KE, Rikihisa Y, Tully JG (2001) Proposal to transfer some members of the genera Haemobartonella and Eperythrozoon to the genus Mycoplasma with descriptions of ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemofelis’, ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemomuris’, ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemosuis’ and ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma wenyonii’. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 51:891–899
Nicholas RAJ, Churchward C, Furniss G (2008) First outbreak of CCPP in gazelle species in the Middle East. In: Abstracts of the AVTRW meeting, Scarborough, March 2008. pp 52
Nocard E, Roux ER (1898) Le microbe de la peripneumonie. Ann Inst Pasteur 12:240–262
Oaks JL, Donahoe SL, Rurangirwa FR, Rideout FR, Gilbert M, Virani MZ (2004) Identification of a novel mycoplasma species from an oriental white-backed vulture (Gyps bengalensis). J Clin Microbiol 42:5909–5912
Obeck DK (1976) Severe polyarthritis in a rhesus monkey: suggested mycoplasma etiology. Lab Anim Sci 26:613–618
Ostrowski S, Thiaucourt F, Amirbekov M, Mahmadshoev A, Manso-Silvan L, Dupuy V, Vahobov D, Ziyoev O, Michel S (2011) Fatal outbreak of M. capricolum pneumonia in endangered Markhors. Emerg Infect Dis 17:2338–2341
Owen D (1976) Some parasites and other organisms of wild rodents in the vicinity of a SPF unit. Lab Anim 10:271–278
Paling R, Macowan KJ, Karstad L (1978) The prevalence of antibody to contagious caprine pleuropneumonia mycoplasma strain F-38 in some wild herbivores and camels in Kenya. J Wildl Dis 14:305–308
Panagis K, Apps P, Knight MH (1982) Seal finger: occurrence in Antarctica. S Afr J Antarct Res 12:49
Panangala VS, Stringfellow JS, Dybvig K, Woodard A, Sun F, Rose DL, Gresham MM (1993) Mycoplasma corogypsi sp., a new species from the footpad abscess of a black vulture, Coragyps atratus. Int J Syst Bacteriol 43:585–590
Penner JD, Jacobson ER, Brown DR, Adams HP, Williford BC (1997) A novel Mycoplasma sp. associated with proliferative tracheitis and pneumonia in a Burmese python (Python molurus bivittatus). Lab Anim Sci 117:283–288
Pennycott TW, Dare CM, Yavari CA, Bradburry JM (2005) Mycoplasma sturni and Mycoplasma gallisepticum in wild birds in Scotland. Vet Rec 156:513–515
Perrin J, Muller M, Zangger N, Nicolet J (1994) Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides LC infection in wild goat kids (Capra aegagrus cretica) in Bern Zoo (Switzerland). Schweiz Arch Tierheilkd 136:270–274
Poveda JB, Carranza J, Miranda A, Garrido M, Hermoso A, Fernandez A, Domenech J (1990a) An epizootiological study of avian mycoplasmosis in southern Spain. Avian Pathol 19:627–633
Poveda JB, Fernandez A, Carranza J, Hermoso M, Perea JA (1986) Isolation of M. synoviae from the red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa). Avian Pathol 15:797–802
Poveda JB, Giebel J, Flossdorf J, Meier J, Kirchhoff H (1994) Mycoplasma buteonis sp. nov., Mycoplasma falconis sp. nov., and Mycoplasma gypis sp. nov., three species from birds of prey. Int J Syst Bacteriol 44:94–98
Poveda JB, Giebel J, Kirchhoff H, Fernandez A (1990b) Isolation of mycoplasmas from buzzard, falcons and vultures. Avian Pathol 19:779–783
Prayson MJ, Venkatarryappa I, Srivastava M, Northern I, Burdette SD (2008) Deep infection with Mycoplasma arginini in an open femur fracture secondary to an African lion bite: a case report. Injury Extra 39:243–246
Pye GW, Brown DR, Nogueira MF, Vliet KA, Schoeb TR, Jacobson ER, Bennett RA (2001) Experimental inoculation of broad-nosed caimans (Caiman latirostris) and Siamese crocodiles (Crocodylus siamensis) with Mycoplasma alligatoris. J Zoo Wildl Med 32:196–201
Ruder MG, Feldman SH, Wünschmann A, McRuer DL (2009) Association of Mycoplasma corogypsi and polyarthritis in a black vulture (Coragyps atratus) in Virginia. J Wildl Dis 45:808–816
Samuel MD, Goldberg DR, Thomas CB, Sharp P (1995) Effects of M. anatis and cold stress on hatching success and growth of mallard ducklings. J Wildl Dis 31:172–178
Santos AP, Santos RP, Biondo AW, Dora JM, Goldani LZ, de Oliveira ST, de Sa Guimaraes AM, Timenetsky J, de Morais HA, Gonzalez FHD, Messick JB (2008) Hemoplasma infection in HIV-positive patient, Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis 14:1922–1924
Sargent E (1980) Tetracycline for seal finger. J Am Med Assoc 244:437
Schoeb TR, Dybvig K, Keisling KF, Davidson MK, Davis JK (1997) Detection of urogenital mycoplasmal infections in primates by use of polymerase chain reaction. Lab Anim Sci 47:468–471
Schweighardt H, Pechan P, Lauermann E, Krassnig G (1989) M. capricolum infection in an alpine ibex (Capra ibex ibex). Eine Fallbeschreibung Kleintierpraxis 34:297–299
Shimizu T, Numano K, Uchida K (1979) Isolation and identification of mycoplasmas from various birds: an ecological study. Japanese J Vet Sci 41:273–282
Soares JF, Erles K, Holtby S, Waters M, McArthur S (2004) Prevalence of Mycoplasma agassizii and chelonian herpesvirus in captive tortoises (Testudo sp.) in the United Kingdom. J Zoo Wildl Med 35:25–33
Somerson NL, Cole BC (1979) The mycoplasma flora of human and non-human primates. In: Tully JG, Whitcomb RF (eds) The mycoplasmas. Academic Press Inc, New York, pp 191–216
Spalding MG, Forrester DJ (1993) Pathogenesis of Eustrongylides ignotus (Nematoda: Dioctophymatoidea) in Ciconiiformes. J Wildlife Dis 29:250–260
Stipkovits L (1989) Isolation of M. pneumoniae from monkeys (Presbitus cristata). Zentralbl Vet Med 36:134–138
Stipkovits L, Marantidi AN, Dzikidze EK (1990) Urethral infection of male monkeys by M. hominis and Ureaplasma urealyticum. Zentralbl Vet Med 37:125–134
Tan RJS, Davey GP, Smith JMB (1971) A strain of Mycoplasma from the short eared European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus). Res Vet Sci 12:390–391
Tripathy SB, Acharjyo LN, Singh U, Ray SK, Misra SK (1972) Studies on an outbreak of M. gallisepticum infection among pea fowl (Parvo cristatus). British Vet J 128:428–431
Tully JG, Del Giudice RA, Barile MF (1972) Synonymy of Mycoplasma arginini and Mycoplasma leonis. Int J Syst Bacteriol 22:47–49
Verbisck-Bucker G, Gonzalez-Candela G, Galian J, Cubero-Pablo MJ, Martin-Atance P, Leon-Vizcaino L (2008) Epidemiology of Mycoplasma agalactiae infection in free-ranging Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica) in Andalusia, Southern Spain. J Wildl Dis 44:369–380
Vieira RF, Molento MB, dos Santos LC, Moraes W, Cubas ZS, Santos AP, Guimaraes AM, Mohamed A, Barros Filho IR, Biondo AW, Messick JB (2009) Detection of a novel hemoplasma based on 16S rRNA gene DNA in captive and free-ranging capybaras (Hydrochaerishydrochaeris). Vet Microbiol 139:410–413
Volokhova DV, Norris T, Rios C, Davidsonc MK, Messick JB, Gulland FM, Chizhikov VE (2011) Novel hemotrophic mycoplasma identified in naturally infected California sea lions (Zalophus californianus). Vet Microbiol 149:262–268
Wendland LA, Zacher PA, Klein DR, Brown D, Demcovitz R, Littell R, Brown MB (2007) Improved enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to reveal Mycoplasma agassizii exposure: a valuable tool in the management of environmentally sensitive tortoise populations. Clin Vac Immunol 14:1190–1195
Williams ES, Barker IK (2001) Infectious diseases of wild mammals, 3rd edn. Blackwell, Iowa, pp 413–421
Williams ES, Miller MW, Kreeger TJ, Kahn RH, Thorne ET (2002) Chronic wasting disease of deer and elk: a review with recommendations for management. J Wildl Manage 66:551–563
Wolf A, Kradel DC, Bubash GR (1973) Mycoplasma isolates from pneumonia in captive rocky mountain bighorn sheep. J Wildl Dis 6:169–176
Wolff PL, Seal US (1993) Implications of infectious disease for captive propagation and reintroduction of threatened species. J Zoo Wildlife Med 24:229–230
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Communicated by C. Gortázar
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sumithra, T.G., Chaturvedi, V.K., Susan, C. et al. Mycoplasmosis in wildlife: a review. Eur J Wildl Res 59, 769–781 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-013-0769-9
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-013-0769-9