Skip to main content
Log in

Groundwater freshening following coastal progradation and land reclamation of the Po Plain, Italy

Rafraîchissement des eaux souterraines à la suite d’une progradation côtière et d’une réhabilitation des terrains de la plaine du Pô, Italie

Conversión del agua subterránea en agua dulce después de una progradación costera y recuperación de tierras en la llanura del Po, Italia

意大利Po平原沿海外伸和土地开垦后的地下水淡化

Addolcimento delle acque sotterranee a seguito di pro-gradazione e bonifica costiera nella Pianura Padana (Italia)

Dulcificação (freshening) de águas subterrâneas seguindo o avanço costeiro e recuperação de terras da Planície do Pó, Itália

  • Report
  • Published:
Hydrogeology Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Many coastal areas historically were inundated by seawater, but have since undergone land reclamation to enable settlements and farming. This study focuses on the coastal unconfined aquifer in the Po Plain near Ravenna, Italy. Freshwater is present as isolated thin (1–5 m) lenses on top of brackish to saline water. Historical maps show large areas of sea inundation until approximately 150–200 years ago when coastal progradation and construction of the drainage canals began. Since then, the aquifer has been freshening from recharge. A three-dimensional SEAWAT model is used to simulate a 200-year freshening history, starting with a model domain that is saturated with seawater, and applying recharge across the top model layer. Calibration to the observed concentrations for discrete depths within many monitoring wells is remarkably good. The current distribution of freshwater is largely controlled by the drainage network. Within and adjacent to the drains, the groundwater has high salinity due to up-coning of salt water. Between drains, the surface layers of the aquifer are fresh due to the flushing action of recharge. The modeling results are consistent with cation exchange processes revealed in the groundwater chemistry and with freshwater lenses identified in electrical resistivity soundings.

Résumé

Many coastal areas historically were inundated by seawater, but have since undergone land reclamation to enable settlements and farming. De nombreuses zones côtières ont été historiquement inondées par les eaux marines, mais ont depuis laissé place à la réhabilitation des terres pour favoriser l’implantation des habitants et l’agriculture. Cette étude concerne l’aquifère côtier libre dans la plaine du Pô près de Ravenne en Italie. L’eau douce est présente sous forme de lentilles peu épaisses (1–5 m) surmontant l’eau saumâtre à saline. Des cartes historiques montrent de grandes zones d’inondation par la mer jusqu’il y a environ 150 à 200 ans lorsque la progradation côtière et la construction de canaux de drainage ont débuté. Depuis lors, l’aquifère a été radouci par la recharge. Un modèle tri dimensionnel SEAWAT est utilisé pour simuler le rafraîchissement au cours des 200 dernières années, débutant par un domaine du modèle saturé en eau salée et en appliquant une recharge au niveau de la couche supérieure du modèle. La calibration par rapport aux concentrations observées en des profondeurs données parmi des puits d’observation est d’une qualité remarquable. La distribution actuelle de l’eau douce est grandement contrôlée par le réseau de drainage. A l’intérieur et à proximité des drains, l’eau souterraine est caractérisée par une salinité élevée à cause d’un effet de cône ascendant des eaux salées. Entre les drains, les couches superficielles de l’aquifères sont caractérisées par la présence d’eau douce à cause de l’action de rinçage par la recharge. Les résultats de la modélisation sont en accord avec les processus d’échange des cations révélée par la chimie des eaux souterraines et au sein des lentilles d’eau douce identifiées à l’aide de sondages de résistivité.

Resumen

Muchas áreas costeras fueron históricamente inundadas por el agua de mar, pero han experimentado desde entonces la recuperación de tierras para permitir los asentamientos y las actividades agrícolas. Este estudio se centra en el acuífero no confinado costero en la llanura del Po, cerca de Ravena, Italia. El agua dulce está presente como delgadas lentes aisladas (1–5 m) por encima de agua salada o salobre. Los mapas históricos muestran grandes áreas de inundación del mar hasta aproximadamente 150–200 años atrás cuando comenzó la progradación costera y la construcción de canales. Desde entonces, el acuífero se ha convertido en dulce a partir de la recarga. Se usa el modelo SEAWAT tridimensional para simular el curso de conversión en agua dulce a lo largo de unos 200 años de historia, comenzando con un dominio del modelo que está saturado con agua de mar, y aplicando la recarga a través de la parte superior de la capa del modelo. La calibración para las concentraciones observadas para profundidades discretas dentro de muchos pozos de monitoreo es marcadamente buena. La distribución actual de agua dulce está en gran medida controlada por la red de drenaje. Dentro y en las adyacencias de los drenajes, el agua subterránea tiene alta salinidad debido al ingreso de agua salada. Entre los drenajes, las capas superficiales del acuífero son dulces debido a la acción de lavado de la recarga. Los resultados del modelo son consistentes con los procesos de intercambio de cationes revelados en la química del agua subterránea y con los lentes de agua dulce identificados en sondeos de resistividad eléctrica.

摘要

许多沿海地区历史上曾经被海水淹没,但随后经历了土地开垦,使居住和耕作成为可能。本项研究着重于意大利拉文纳附近Po平原的沿海非承压含水层。淡水在微咸至咸水上面以独立的薄层(1–5米)透镜体形式出现。历史地图显示,在沿海外伸作用和排水渠道建设开始大约150–200年前,大片区域被海水淹没。此后,含水层通过补给开始淡化。采用三维SEAWAT模型模拟200年的淡化历史,从充满海水的模型域开始,并使补给穿过模型顶层。对许多监测井内的各种深度观测的关注点校准非常好。目前淡水分布主要受控于排水网络。在排水渠之内及附近,由于咸水上涌,地下水含盐量很大。排水渠之间,由于补给冲洗作用,含水层表层为淡水。模拟结果与地下水化学揭示的阳离子交换过程及与电阻率勘探确定的淡水透镜体一致。

Riassunto

In tempi storici, molte zone costiere sono state prima inondate dal mare e poi bonificate per permetterne l’insediamento e le pratiche agricole. Questo studio si focalizza sull’acquifero freatico costiero della Pianura Padana vicino a Ravenna (Italia) ove l’acqua dolce è presente solo in piccole e isolate lenti sottili (1–5 m) che galleggiano su acque salmastre e salate. Mappe storiche della zona mostrano che ampie zone di questo territorio sono state sommerse dal mare fino a 150–200 anni fa quando cominciò un periodo di pro gradazione costiera e la costruzione del reticolo dei canali di bonifica. Da allora, l’acquifero è andato addolcendosi grazie alla ricarica di acqua piovana. Un modello SEAWAT tridimensionale è stato usato per simulare i 200 anni del periodo di addolcimento a partire da un acquifero inizialmente saturo in acqua marina e applicando una ricarica al livello superiore del modello. La calibrazione con le concentrazioni saline osservate in numerosi piezometri e a profondità diverse dell’acquifero è molto buona. La distribuzione attuale dell’acqua dolce è essenzialmente controllata dalla rete dei canali di drenaggio. Nei canali e nelle zone a loro adiacenti, l’acqua è molto salina a causa della risalita di acque salate profonde. Grazie all’infiltrazione di pioggia, l’acqua dolce è situata fra un dreno e l’altro nella parte più superficiale dell’acquifero. I risultati della modellazione numerica sono consistenti con processi di scambio cationico rilevati da analisi idrochimiche e con la distribuzione delle lenti d’acqua dolce individuate da indagini geo-elettriche.

Resumo

Muitas áreas costeiras são historicamente inundadas pela água do mar, mas estas áreas têm passado por recuperação de terras para possibilitar a instalação de assentamentos e agricultura. Este estudo foca no aquífero costeiro não confinado na Planície do Pó próximo a Ravena, Itália. A água doce se apresenta em finas lâminas isoladas (1–5 m) no topo da região salobra para água salgada. Mapas históricos mostram grandes áreas de inundação até a aproximadamente 150–200 anos atrás quando o avanço costeiro e a construção de canais de drenagem começaram. Desde então, o aquífero vem sendo dulcificado a partir da recarga. Um modelo tridimensional SEAWAT é utilizado para simular um histórico de 200 anos de dulcificação, começando com um domínio do modelo que é saturado com água do mar e aplicando a recarga através da camada superior do modelo. Calibração para as concentrações observadas para profundidades discretas com os muitos poços de monitoramento foi notavelmente boa. A distribuição atual da água doce é amplamente controlada pela rede de drenagem. Dentro e adjacente aos drenos, as águas subterrâneas possuem alta salinidade pela entrada de água salgada. Entre os drenos, as camadas superficiais do aquífero possuem água doce pela ação de lavagem da recarga. Os resultados da modelagem são consistentes com os processos de troca catiônica revelados na química da água subterrânea e com as lâminas de água doce identificadas nas sondagens de resistividade elétrica.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14
Fig. 15

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adepelumi AA, Ako BD, Ajayi TR, Afolabi O, Omotoso EJ (2009) Delineation of saltwater intrusion into the freshwater aquifer of Lekki Peninsula, Lagos, Nigeria. Environ Geol 56:927–933

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allen DM, Liteanu E (2008) Long-term dynamics of the saltwater–freshwater interface on the Gulf Islands, British Columbia, Canada. In: Barrocu G (ed) Proceedings of the First International Joint Saltwater Intrusion Conference, SWIM-SWICA, Cagliari, Italy, September 25–29, 2006

  • Amorosi A, Colalongo ML, Fiorini F, Fusco F, Pasini G, Vaiani SC, Sarti G (2004) Palaeogeographic and palaeoclimatic evolution of the Po Plain from 150-ky core records. Glob Planet Chang 40:55–78

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amorosi A, Centineo MC, Colalongo ML, Fiorini F (2005) Millennial-scale depositional cycles from the Holocene of the Po plain, Italy. Mar Geol 222–223:7–18

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Antonellini M, Mollema PN (2010) Impact of groundwater salinity on vegetation species richness in the coastal pine forests and wetlands of Ravenna, Italy. Ecol Eng 36:1201–1211

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Antonellini M, Mollema P, Giambastiani BMS, Bishop K, Caruso L, Minchio A, Pellegrini L, Sabia M, Ulazzi E, Gabbianelli G (2008) Salt water intrusion in the coastal aquifer of the southern Po Plain, Italy. Hydrogeol J 16:1541–1556

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Appelo CA, Postma J (2005) Geochemistry, groundwater and pollution. Balkema, Leiden, The Netherlands, 649 pp

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bau’ D, Gambolati G, Teatini P (2000) Residual land settlement near abandoned gas fields raises concern over Northern Adriatic coastland. EOS Trans Am Geophys Union 81:245–249

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bondesan M, Castiglioni GB, Elmi C, Gabbianelli G, Marocco R, Pirazzoli PA, Tomasin A (1995) Coastal areas at risk from storm surges and sea level rise in north-eastern Italy. J Coast Res 11:1354–1379

    Google Scholar 

  • Burger DC, Burger HR (1992) Macintosh computer programs to accompany exploration geophysics of the shallow subsurface. Prentice-Hall, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Capo D (2012) Studio dell’intrusione salina all’interno di un acquifero freatico costiero (Ravenna, Italia) [A study of sea-water intrusion in a phreatic coastal aquifer (Ravenna, Italy)]. PhD Thesis, Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, Italy

  • Carbognin L, Gatto P, Mozzi G (1984) Case history no. 9.15: Ravenna, Italy. In: Poland JF (ed) Guidebook to studies of land subsidence due to ground-water withdrawal. UNESCO, Paris, pp 291–305

    Google Scholar 

  • Carminati E, Martinelli G (2002) Subsidence rates in the Po Plain, northern Italy: the relative impact of natural and anthropogenic causation. Eng Geol 66:241–255

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ciabatti M (1968) Gli antichi delta del Po anteriori al 1,600 [The ancient Po Delta before AD 1,600]. In: Atti del convegno internazionale di studi sulle antichità di Classe-Ravenna [Proceedings of the International Meeting on the history of Classe-Ravenna], Faenza, Italy, 14–17 October 1967, pp 23–33

  • Cimino A, Cosentino C, Oieni A, Tranchina L (2007) A geophysical and geochemical approach for seawater intrusion assessment in the Acquedolci coastal aquifer (northern Sicily). Environ Geol 55:1473–1482

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Custodio E (2010) Coastal aquifers of Europe: an overview. Hydrogeol J 18:269–280

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Custodio E, Bruggeman GA (1987) Groundwater problems in coastal areas. Studies and Reports in Hydrology, In. Hydrological Programme, UNESCO, Paris

  • De Louw PGB, Van der Velde Y, Van der Zee SEATM (2011) Quantifying water and salt fluxes in a lowland polder catchment dominated by boil seepage: a probabilistic end member mixing approach. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 15:2101–2117

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eeman S, Leijnse A, Raats PAC, Van der Zee SEATM (2011) Analysis of the thickness of a fresh water lens and of the transition zone between this lens and upwelling saline water. Adv Water Resour 34:291–302

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gambolati G, Teatini P (1998) Numerical analysis of land subsidence due to natural compaction of the Upper Adriatic Sea basin. In: Gambolati G (ed) CENAS, Coastal evolution of the upper Adriatic sea due to sea level rise and natural and anthropogenic land subsidence. Water Science and Technology Library no. 28, Kluwer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp 103–131

  • Gambolati G, Ricceri G, Bertoni W, Brighenti G, Vuillermin E (1991) Mathematical simulation of the subsidence of Ravenna. Water Resour Res 27:2899–2918

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giambastiani BMS, Antonellini M, Oude Essink GHP, Stuurman RJ (2007) Saltwater intrusion in the unconfined coastal aquifer of Ravenna (Italy): a numerical model. J Hydrol 340:91–104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giambastiani BMS, Mollema PN, Antonellini M (2009) Groundwater management in the northern Adriatic Coast (Ravenna, Italy): new strategies to protect the coastal aquifers from saltwater intrusion. In: Groundwater: modelling, management and contamination. NOVA, Hauppage, New York, pp 203–230

  • Giambastiani BMS, Colombani N, Mastrocicco M, Fidelibus MD (2013) Characterization of the lowland coastal aquifer of Comacchio (Ferrara, Italy): hydrology, hydrochemistry and evolution of the system. J Hydrol 501:35–44

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamzah U, Samsudin AR, Malim EP (2006) Groundwater investigation in Kuala Selangor using vertical electrical sounding (VES) surveys. Environ Geol 51:1349–1359

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langevin CD, Thorne DT Jr., Dausman AM, Sukop, MC, Weixing G (2007) SEAWAT Version 4: a computer program for simulation of multi-species solute and heat transport. US Geological Survey Techniques and Methods, Book 6, Chapter A22, US Geological Survey, Reston, VA, 39 pp

  • Lewis EL, Perkin RG (1981) The practical salinity scale 1978: conversion of existing data. Deep-Sea Res 28A(4):307–328

  • Marchesini L, Amorosi A, Cibin U, Zuffa GG, Spadafora E, Preti D (2000) Sand composition and sedimentary evolution of a late Quaternary depositional sequence, northwestern Adriatic Coast, Italy. J Sediment Res 70:829–838

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marconi V, Antonellini M, Balugani E, Dinelli E (2011) Hydrogeological characterization of small coastal wetlands and forests in the Southern Po Plain (northern Italy). Ecohydrology 4:597–607

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mollema P, Antonellini M, Gabbianelli G, Laghi M, Marconi V, Minchio A (2012) Climate and water budget change of a Mediterranean coastal watershed, Ravenna, Italy. Environ Earth Sci 65:257–276

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mollema PN, Antonellini M, Dinelli E, Gabbianelli G, Greggio N, Stuyfzand PJ (2013a) Hydrochemical and physical processes influencing salinization and freshening in Mediterranean low-lying coastal environments. Appl Geochem 34:207–221

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mollema PN, Antonellini M, Gabbianelli G, Galloni E (2013b) Water budget management of a coastal pine forest in a Mediterranean catchment (Marina Romea, Ravenna, Italy). Environ Earth Sci 68:1707–1721

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Post VEA, Van der Plicht H, Meijer HAJ (2003) The origin of brackish and saline groundwater in the coastal area of the Netherlands. Neth J Geosci-Geol Mijnb 82(2):133–147

    Google Scholar 

  • Preti M (2000) Eustatismo, subsidenza e linee di intervento per la difesa del territorio costiero in Emilia-Romagna: Mare e cambiamenti globali [Sea level change, land subsidence and action plan for protecting the Emilia-Romagna coastal zone: Sea and global change]. ICRAM, ARPA Environ. Eng., Bologna, pp 167–179

    Google Scholar 

  • Regione Emilia-Romagna (2010) Sito della cartografia geologica del Servizio geologico, sismico e dei suoli, assessorato difesa del suolo e della costa [Cartography and geo-thematic website of the Geologic, Seismic and Soil Survey Office of the Emilia-Romagna Region]. https://servizimoka.regione.emiliaromagna.it/mokaWeb92/apps/usosuolo. Accessed March 2014

  • Rockware Inc (2010) RockWorks, version 15. http://www.rockware.com/product/overview.php?id=165. Accessed March 2014

  • Selli R, Ciabatti M (1977) L‘abbassamento del suolo della zona litoranea ravennate [Land subsidence in the Ravenna coastal zone]. Giorn Geol 42:1–47

    Google Scholar 

  • Song SH, Lee SH, Namsik P (2007) Use of vertical electrical soundings to delineate seawater intrusion in a coastal area of Byunsan, Korea. Environ Geol 52:1207–1219

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stefani M, Vincenzi S (2005) The interplay of eustasy, climate and human activity in the late Quaternary depositional evolution and sedimentary architecture of the Po Delta system. Mar Geol 222–223:9–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Stuyfzand PJ (1989) A new hydrochemical classification of water types. IAHS Publ 182, IAHS, Wallingford, UK, pp 262–265

  • Stuyfzand PJ (1995) The impact of land reclamation on groundwater quality and future drinking water supply in the Netherlands. Water Sci Technol 31:47–57

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stuyfzand PJ (2008) Base exchange indices as indicators of salinization or freshening of (coastal) aquifers. Proceedings of 20th Salt Water Intrusion Meeting, Naples, FL, 23–27 June 2008

  • Teatini P, Ferronato M, Gambolati G, Bertoni W, Gonella M (2005) A century of land subsidence in Ravenna, Italy. Environ Geol 47:831–846

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teatini P, Ferronato M, Gambolati G, Gonella M (2006) Groundwater pumping and land subsidence in the Emilia-Romagna coastland, Italy: modeling the past occurrence and the future trend. Water Resour Res 42:1–19

    Google Scholar 

  • Ulazzi E, Antonellini M, Gabbianelli G (2007) Characterization of the surface aquifer in the coastal flat zone of Cervia Municipality. In: NATO Science Series IV, Earth and environmental integrated water management: practical experiences and case studies. Springer, Berlin, pp 295–308

  • Vandenbohede A, Mollema PN, Greggio N, Antonellini M (2014) Seasonal dynamic of a shallow freshwater lens due to irrigation in the coastal plain of Ravenna, Italy. Hydrogeol J 22:893–909. doi:10.1007/s10040-014-1099-z

  • Veggiani A (1974) Le ultime vicende geologiche del Ravennate: influenza di insediamenti industriali sul circostante ambiente naturale [Recent geologic history of the Ravenna area: impacts of industry and manufacture infrastructure on the surrounding natural areas]. Studio sulla pineta di S. Vitale di Ravenna. Compositori, Bologna, Italy, pp 48–58

  • Venturini S (1996) Dati preliminari sulla stratigrafia e sulla subsidenza naturale nel Quaternario dell’area Ravennate e Veneziana [Preliminary data on Quaternary stratigraphy and land subsidence in the Ravenna and Venice areas]. T.R., AGIP DIRA/GERA, Marina di Ravenna, Italy

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to ENI SpA for funding the Coastal Seawater Intrusion project, the municipality of Ravenna, the Local Watersheds Authority, the Land Reclamation Authority, and the Regione Emilia-Romagna for data sharing and help during the fieldwork. We also thank the two anonymous reviewers for their helpful suggestions for improving the original manuscript. Funding for the modeling portion of this research was provided by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada through a Discovery Grant to Diana Allen.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to D. M. Allen.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Antonellini, M., Allen, D.M., Mollema, P.N. et al. Groundwater freshening following coastal progradation and land reclamation of the Po Plain, Italy. Hydrogeol J 23, 1009–1026 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-015-1263-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-015-1263-0

Keywords

Navigation