Abstract
HIV-infected pregnant women in sub-Saharan Africa are at risk for depression and alcohol abuse. Young women may be more vulnerable, but little is known about the psychosocial functioning of this population. We compared younger (18–24 years old) and older (≥25 years old) HIV-infected pregnant women initiating antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Cape Town, South Africa. Women were assessed on a range of psychosocial measures, including the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test and the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). Among 625 women initiating ART, 16 % reported risky alcohol use and 21 % alcohol-related harm; these percentages were similar across age groups. When younger women were stratified by age, 37 % of 18–21 years old versus 20 % of 22–24 years old reported alcohol-related harm (p = 0.02). Overall, 11 % of women had EPDS scores suggesting probable depression, and 6 % reported self-harming thoughts. Younger women reported more depressive symptoms. Report of self-harming thoughts was 11 % in younger and 4 % in older women (p = 0.002). In multivariable analysis, age remained significantly associated with depressive symptoms and report of self-harming thoughts. Level of HIV-related stigma and report of intimate partner violence modified the association between age and depressive symptoms. Young HIV-infected pregnant women in South Africa were more likely to report depressive symptoms and self-harming thoughts compared to older women, and the youngest women reported the highest levels of alcohol-related harm. HIV-related stigma and intimate partner violence may be moderating factors. These findings have implications for maternal and infant health, underscoring the urgent need for effective targeted interventions in this vulnerable population.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Babor TF, Higginsbiddle JC, Saunders JB, Monteiro M (2001) The alcohol use disorders identification test: guidelines for use in primary care
Brittain K, Mellins CA, Phillips T, Zerbe A, Abrams EJ, Myer L, Remien RH (2016) Social support, stigma and antenatal depression among HIV-infected pregnant women in South Africa. AIDS Behav. doi:10.1007/s10461-016-1389-7
Cheng Y et al (2014) The association between social support and mental health among vulnerable adolescents in five cities: findings from the study of the well-being of adolescents in vulnerable environments. J Adolesc Health 55:S31–S38
Cohen S (1988) Psychosocial models of the role of social support in the etiology of physical diseases. Health Psychol 7:269–297
Desmond K et al (2012) Alcohol consumption among HIV-positive pregnant women in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: prevalence and correlates. Drug Alcohol Depend 120:113–118
Fatti G, Shaikh N, Eley B, Jackson D, Grimwood A (2014) Adolescent and young pregnant women at increased risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV and poorer maternal and infant health outcomes: a cohort study at public facilities in the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan district, Eastern Cape, South Africa. S Afr Med J 104:874–880
Fife B, Wright ER (2000) The dimensionality of stigma: a comparison of its impact on the self of persons with HIV/AIDS and cancer. J Health Soc Behav 41:50–67
García-Moreno C (2005) World Health Organization: multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence against women: initial results on prevalence, health outcomes and women’s responses. World Health Organization, Geneva
Gray A, Vawda Y (2016) South African health review 2016
Grote NK, Bridge JA, Gavin AR, Melville JL, Iyengar S, Katon WJ (2010) A meta-analysis of depression during pregnancy and the risk of preterm birth, low birth weight, and intrauterine growth restriction. Arch Gen Psychiatry 67:1012–1024. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.111
Hall J, Barrett G, Mbwana N, Copas A, Malata A, Stephenson J (2013) Understanding pregnancy planning in a low-income country setting: validation of the London measure of unplanned pregnancy in Malawi. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 13:200. doi:10.1186/1471-2393-13-200
Hartley M et al (2011) Depressed mood in pregnancy: prevalence and correlates in two Cape Town peri-urban settlements. Reprod Health 8:9. doi:10.1186/1742-4755-8-9
Horwood C, Butler LM, Haskins L, Phakathi S, Rollins N (2013) HIV-infected adolescent mothers and their infants: low coverage of HIV services and high risk of HIV transmission in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. PLoS One 8, e74568. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0074568
Kaufman ZA, Braunschweig EN, Feeney J, Dringus S, Weiss H, Delany-Moretlwe S, Ross DA (2014) Sexual risk behavior, alcohol use, and social media use among secondary school students in informal settlements in Cape Town and Port Elizabeth, South Africa. AIDS Behav 18:1661–1674. doi:10.1007/s10461-014-0816-x
Kharsany AB, Mlotshwa M, Frohlich JA, Yende Zuma N, Samsunder N, Abdool Karim SS, Abdool Karim Q (2012) HIV prevalence among high school learners - opportunities for schools-based HIV testing programmes and sexual reproductive health services. BMC Public Health 12:231. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-12-231
Kim MH et al (2014) Prevalence of depression and validation of the Beck Depression Inventory-II and the Children’s Depression Inventory-Short amongst HIV-positive adolescents in Malawi. J Int AIDS Soc 17:18965. doi:10.7448/IAS.17.1.18965
Manikkam L, Burns JK (2012) Antenatal depression and its risk factors: an urban prevalence study in KwaZulu-Natal. S Afr Med J 102:940–944. doi:10.7196/samj.6009
May PA et al (2007) The epidemiology of fetal alcohol syndrome and partial FAS in a South African community. Drug Alcohol Depend 88:259–271. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.11.007
Myer L, Phillips T, Manuelli V, McIntyre J, Bekker LG, Abrams EJ (2015) Evolution of antiretroviral therapy services for HIV-infected pregnant women in Cape Town, South Africa. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. doi:10.1097/QAI.0000000000000584
Myer L et al (2016) Optimizing antiretroviral therapy (ART) for maternal and child health (MCH): rationale and design of the MCH-ART study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 72(Suppl 2):S189–S196. doi:10.1097/QAI.0000000000001056
Nakimuli-Mpungu E et al (2012) Depression, alcohol use and adherence to antiretroviral therapy in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review. AIDS Behav 16:2101–2118. doi:10.1007/s10461-011-0087-8
Napierala Mavedzenge S, Olson R, Doyle AM, Changalucha J, Ross DA (2011) The epidemiology of HIV among young people in sub-Saharan Africa: know your local epidemic and its implications for prevention. J Adoles Health 49:559–567. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.02.012
Nduna M, Jewkes RK, Dunkle KL, Shai NP, Colman I (2010) Associations between depressive symptoms, sexual behaviour and relationship characteristics: a prospective cohort study of young women and men in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. J Int AIDS Soc 13:44. doi:10.1186/1758-2652-13-44
O’Connor MJ, Tomlinson M, Leroux IM, Stewart J, Greco E, Rotheram-Borus MJ (2011) Predictors of alcohol use prior to pregnancy recognition among township women in Cape Town, South Africa. Soc Sci Med 72:83–90. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.09.049
Olivier L, Urban M, Chersich M, Temmerman M, Viljoen D (2013) Burden of fetal alcohol syndrome in a rural West Coast area of South Africa. S Afr Med J 103:402–405. doi:10.7196/samj.6249
Pettifor AE et al (2005) Young people’s sexual health in South Africa: HIV prevalence and sexual behaviors from a nationally representative household survey. AIDS 19:1525–1534
Psaros C et al (2014) PMTCT adherence in pregnant South African women: the role of depression, social support, stigma and structural barriers to care. AIDS Res Hum Retrovir 30:A61
Ramraj T, Jackson D, Dinh T, Olorunji S, Lombard C, Sherman G, Puren A, Ramokolo V, Noveve N, Singh Y, Magasana V, Bhardwaj S, Pillay Y, Goga AE (2015) Mother-to-child transmission of HIV amongst adolescents: findings from three national surveys, South Africa, 2010, 2011, 2012. In: 8th IAS Conference on HIV Pathogenesis, Treatment & Prevention. Vancouver, Canada
Rochat TJ, Tomlinson M, Newell ML, Stein A (2013) Detection of antenatal depression in rural HIV-affected populations with short and ultrashort versions of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). Arch Womens Ment Health 16:401–410. doi:10.1007/s00737-013-0353-z
Ronen K, Mcgrath C, Langat A, Kinuthia J, Omolo D, Singa B, Katana A, Nganga L, John-Stewart G (2015) Lower ANC attendance and PMTCT uptake in adolescent versus adult pregnant women in Kenya. In: 8th IAS Conference on HIV Pathogenesis, Treatment & Prevention. Vancouver, Canada
Sawyer A, Ayers S, Smith H (2010) Pre- and postnatal psychological wellbeing in Africa: a systematic review. J Affect Disord 123:17–29. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2009.06.027
Shamu S, Abrahams N, Temmerman M, Musekiwa A, Zarowsky C (2011) A systematic review of African studies on intimate partner violence against pregnant women: prevalence and risk factors. PLoS One 6, e17591
Sin NL, DiMatteo MR (2014) Depression treatment enhances adherence to antiretroviral therapy: a meta-analysis. Ann Behav Med 47:259–269. doi:10.1007/s12160-013-9559-6
Strategic Development Information City of Cape Town GIS Department (2011) City of Cape Town—Census 2011—Gugulethu. http://www.capetown.gov.za/en/stats/2011CensusSuburbs/2011_Census_CT_Suburb_Gugulethu_Profile.pdf. Accessed 17 Sept 2016
Tsai AC, Scott JA, Hung KJ, Zhu JQ, Matthews LT, Psaros C, Tomlinson M (2013) Reliability and validity of instruments for assessing perinatal depression in African settings: systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 8, e82521. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0082521
Turan B, Stringer KL, Onono M, Bukusi EA, Weiser SD, Cohen CR, Turan JM (2014) Linkage to HIV care, postpartum depression, and HIV-related stigma in newly diagnosed pregnant women living with HIV in Kenya: a longitudinal observational study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 14:400
Vythilingum B, Roos A, Faure SC, Geerts L, Stein DJ (2012) Risk factors for substance use in pregnant women in South Africa. S Afr Med J 102:851–854. doi:10.7196/samj.5019
Woldesenbet S et al (2015) Missed opportunities along the prevention of mother-to-child transmission services cascade in South Africa: uptake, determinants, and attributable risk (the SAPMTCTE). PLoS One 10, e0132425. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0132425
World Health Organization (2013) HIV and adolescents: guidance for HIV testing and counselling and care for adolescents living with HIV: recommendations for a public health approach and considerations for policy-makers and managers
Acknowledgments
We would like to acknowledge the South African women who agreed to participate in this study as well as the Gugulethu Maternal Obstetrics Unit staff and interviewers for their logistical support. This study is funded by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01-HD074558). Marcia Wong is supported by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease (T32-AI100852).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests.
Ethical approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wong, M., Myer, L., Zerbe, A. et al. Depression, alcohol use, and stigma in younger versus older HIV-infected pregnant women initiating antiretroviral therapy in Cape Town, South Africa. Arch Womens Ment Health 20, 149–159 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-016-0688-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-016-0688-3