Abstract
The current study was set to explore the possible radioprotective activity of Spirulina platensis (SP) against some genotoxic effects of GSM 900-MHz cellular phone radiation on both bone marrow cells and erythrogram. Sixty adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into four groups, exposed to mobile phone radiation for 6 h/day and/or orally administered 300 mg SP/kg body wt for 30 days. Erythrogram elements, alkaline comet, and micronucleus assays for the detection of DNA damage were estimated besides a histopathological examination of bone marrow tissue. Mobile phone radiation exposure evoked a significant increase in RBC count, Hb concentrations, and packed cell volume (PCV) in addition to marked elevation in the frequencies of micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes in the peripheral blood and bone marrow compared to control. On the other hand, SP significantly reduced the level of DNA damage and oxidative stress resulted from electromagnetic phone’s radiations. Conclusively, the continuous exposure to mobile phone’s radiation for a long time had a significant adverse genotoxic effect on both bone marrow and hematopoietic system. Yet, SP is proved to be a useful candidate compound in radioprotection.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abdel Aziz I, El-khozondar HJ, Shabaht M, Elwasife K, Mohamed-Osman A (2010) Effect of electromagnetic field on body weight and blood indices in albino rats and the therapeutic action of vitamin C or E. Rom J biophys 20(3):235–244
Balmori A (2010) The incidence of electromagnetic pollution on wild mammals: a new ―“poison” with a slow effect on nature? Environmentalist 30(1):90–97
Bancroft JD, Gamble M (2008) Theory and practice of histological technique, 4th edn. Churchil Livingston, New York, London, San Francisco, Tokyo
Bhat VB, Madyastha KM (2001) Scavenging of peroxynitrite by phycocyanin phycocyanobilin from Spirulina platensis: protection against oxidative damage to DNA. Biochem Biophys Res Comm 285:262–266
Capri M, Scarcella E, Bianchi E, Fumelli C, Mesirca P, Agostini C, Remondini D, Schuderer J, Kuster N, Franceschi C, Bersani F (2004a) 1,800 MHz radiofrequency (mobile phones, different Global System for Mobile communication modulations) does not affect apoptosis and heat shock protein 70 level in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from young and old donors. Int J Radiat Biol 80(6):389–97
Capri M, Scarcella E, Fumelli C, Bianchi E, Salvioli S, Mesirca P, Agostini C, Antolini A, Schiavoni A, Castellani G, Bersani F, Franceschi C (2004b) In vitro exposure of human lymphocytes to 900 MHz CW and GSM modulated radiofrequency: studies of proliferation, apoptosis and mitochondrial membrane potential. Radiat Res 162(2):211–8
Cranfield CG, Wieser HG, Dobson J (2003) Exposure of magnetic bacteria to simulated mobile phone-type RF radiation has no impact on mortality. IEEE Trans Nanobiosci 2(3):146
Demsia G, Vlastos D, Matthopoulos DP (2004) Effect of 910-MHz electromagnetic field on rat bone marrow. Sci World J 4:48–54
Diem E, Schwarz C, Adlkofer F, Jahn O, Rüdiger H (2005) Non-thermal DNA breakage by mobile-phone radiation (1800 MHz) in human fibroblasts and in transformed GFSH-R17 rat granulosa cells in vitro. Mutat Res-Gen Tox En 583(2):178–183
Duncan DB (1995) Multiple ranges and multiple F-test. Biometrics 11:1–42
Feldman BF, Zinkl JG, Jain NC (2000) Schalm’s veterinary hematology, 5th edn. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins A Wolters Company Philadelphia, Baltimore, New York, London, pp 1219–24
Hamadoun T (2010) Strong global mobile cellular growth across all regions, in Mobile World Congress International Telecommunication Bercelona
Hancı H, Odacı E, Kaya H, Aliyazıcıoğlu Y, Turan I, Demir S, Colakoğlu S (2013) The effect of prenatal exposure to 900-MHz electromagnetic field on the 21-old-day rat testicle. Reprod Toxicol 42:203–9
Henrikson R (1989) Earth food Spirulina Recolina. Ltd Ronore Enterprises Inc, Launa beach, California, pp 27–65
Holden HE, Majeska JB, Studwell D (1997) A direct comparison of mouse and rat bone marrow and blood as target tissues in the micronucleus assay. Mutat Res-Gen Tox En 391(1):87–89
Holman BW, Malau-Aduli AE (2013) Spirulina as a livestock supplement and animal feed. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) 97(4):615–23
Hook GJ, Zhang P, Lagroye I, Li L, Higashikubo R, Moros EG, Straube WL, Pickard WF, Baty JD, Roti Roti JL (2004) Measurement of DNA damage and apoptosis in Molt-4 cells after in vitro exposure to radiofrequency radiation. Radiat Res 161(2):193–200
Jagetia GC, Ganapathi NG (1993) Radiation-induced micronucleus formation in mouse bone marrow after low dose exposures. Mutat Res 16 304(2):235–42
Kim MY, Cheong SH, Lee JH, Kim MJ, Sok DE, Kim MR (2010) Spirulina improves antioxidant status by reducing oxidative stress in rabbits fed a high-cholesterol diet. J Med Food 13:420–426
Lai H, Singh NP (1995) Acute low-intensity microwave exposure increases DNA single-strand breaks in rat brain cells. Bioelectromagnetics 16:207–210
Lai H, Singh NP (1996) Single- and double-strand DNA breaks in rat brain cells after acute exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation. Int J Radiat Biol 69:513–521
Leszczynski D, Nylund R, Joenväää S, Reivinen J (2004) Applicability of discovery science approach to determine biological effects of mobile phone radiation. Proteomics 4:426–31
Lordan S, Ross RP, Stanton C (2011) Marine bioactives as functional food ingredients: potential to reduce the incidence of chronic diseases. Mar Drugs 9:1056–1100
Luxia AS, Monica S, Ornella C, Pizzala B, Loura R, Livia B, Anio M, Ennio P (1996) Effect of B-carotene on cell cycle progression of human fibroblasts. Mutagenesis 17:2395–2401
Mariam SA, El-Ghazaly NA (2012) Effects of exposure to electromagnetic field on of some hematological parameters in mice. OJMC 2(2):30–42
Markova E, Hillert L, Malmgren L, Persson BR, Belyaev IY (2005) Microwaves from GSM mobile telephones affect 53BP1 and gamma-H2AX foci in human lymphocytes from hypersensitive and healthy persons. Environ Health Perspect 113(9):1172–1177
Nădejde C, Creangă D, Goiceanu C (2009) Radiofrequency electromagnetic wave and paramagnetic particle effects on the red blood cells. Rom J Phys 54(1–2):105–114
Nan P, Xiao X, Yan DU, Jian C, Zhong C (2013) Genotoxic effects of 8-hydroxylquinoline in loach (Misgurnus anguillicaudatus) assessed by the micronucleus test, comet assay and RAPD analysis. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 35:434–443
Olive PL, Durand RE, Banath JP, Johnston PJ (2001) Analysis of DNA damage in individual cells. Methods Cell Biol 64:235–49
Otitoloju AA, Osunkalu VO, Akogun MM, Obe IA, Adewale OA, Akinde OR (2010) Stimulation of hemopoetic activity in bone marrow and deformation of Red blood cells in albino mice, Mus musculus exposed to radiations from GSM base stations. SL J Biomedical Res 2(2):127–34
Otitoloju AA, Osunkalu VO, Oduware R, Obe IA, Adewale KO (2012) Hematological effects of radiofrequency radiation from GSM base stations on four successive generations (F1–F4) of albino mice, Mus musculus. J Environ Occup Sci 1(1):17–22
Rehab M, Makhlouf I (2012) Evaluation of the effect of Spirulina against gamma irradiation induced oxidative stress and tissue injury in rats. Int J Appl Sci Eng Res 1(2):152–64
Schmid W (1975) The micronucleus test. Mutat Res 31:9–15
Sharma MK, Sharma A, Kumar A, Kumar M (2007) Evaluation of protective efficacy of Spirulina against mercury induced nephrotoxicity in Swiss albino mice. Food Chem Toxicol 45:879–887
Simsek N, Karadeniz A, Kalkan Y, Keles ON, Unal B (2009) Spirulina platensis feeding inhibited the anemia and leucopenia-induced lead and cadmium in rats. J Hazardous Mater 164:1304–1309
Singh NP, Mccoy MT, Tice RR, Schneider EL (1988) A simple technique for quantitation of low levels of DNA damage in individual cells. Exp Cell Res 175:184–191
Tice RR, Hook GG, Donner M, McRee DI, Guy AW (2002) Genotoxicity of radiofrequency signals I Investigation of DNA damage and micronuclei induction in cultured human blood cells. Bioelectromagnetics 23:113–26
Trosic I, Busljeta I, Modlic B (2004) Investigation of the genotoxic effect of microwave irradiation in rat bone marrow cells: in vivo exposure. Mutagenesis 19(5):361–4
Usman AD, Ahmad WW, Ab Kadir MZA, Mokhtar M, Ariffin R (2012) Effect of radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure on hematological parameters of mice. World Appl Sci J 16(5):656–664
Valberg PA, van Deventer TE, Repacholi MH (2007) Workgroup report: base stations and wireless networks-radiofrequency (RF) exposures and health consequences. Environ Health Perspect 115:416–424
Vijayalaxmi LMK, Bhanushali A, Ziskin MC, Prihoda TJ (2004) Micronuclei cells of mice exposed to 42 GHz electromagnetic millimeter waves. Radiation Res 161(3):341–345
Volkow ND, Tomasi D, Wang G, Vaska P, Fowler JS, Telang F, Alexoff D, Logan J, Wong C (2011) Effects of cell phone radiofrequency signal exposure on brain glucose metabolism. Jama 305(8):808–813
Wu L, Ho JA, Shieh MC, Lu IW (2005) Antioxidant and ant proliferation activities of Spirulina and chorella water extract. J Agric Food Chem 10:4207–4212
Yao K, Wu W, Yu Y, Zeng Q, He J, Lu D, Wang K (2008) Effect of superposed electromagnetic noise on DNA damage of lens epithelial cells induced by microwave radiation. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 49:15
Zahedifar Z, Baharara J (2013) Effect of green tea extract in reducing genotoxic injuries of cell phone microwaves on bone marrow. Zahedan J Res Med Sci 3 15(11):39–44
Zeni O, Romano M, Perrotta A, Lioi MB, Barbieri R, D’Ambrosio G, Massa R, Scarfi MR (2005) Evaluation of genotoxic effects in human peripheral blood leukocytes following an acute in vitro exposure to 900 MHz radiofrequency fields. Bioelectromagnetics 26:258–265
Zhang CW, Tseng CT, Zhang YZ (1994) The effects of polysaccharide and phycocyanin from Spirulina platensis var on peripheral blood and hematopoietic system of bone marrow in mice. Paper presented at the 2nd Asia-Pacific Conference on Algal Biotechnology, Malaysia
Zhang HQ, Ap L, Sun Y, Deng YM (2001) Chemo and radio-protective effects of polysaccharide of Spirulina platensis in hemopoeitic system of mice and dogs. Acta Pharmacol Sin 22:1121–4
Acknowledgments
The author thanks Dr. Mohamed Hamed, Prof. of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, for their assistance in the histopathology.
Conflict of interest
No author of this paper has a conflict of interest, including specific financial interests, relationships, and/or affiliations relevant to the subject matter or materials included in this manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mohamed, W.A., Ismail, S.A. & El-Hakim, Y.M.A. Spirulina platensis ameliorative effect against GSM 900-MHz cellular phone radiation-induced genotoxicity in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Comp Clin Pathol 23, 1719–1726 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00580-014-2003-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00580-014-2003-x