Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Predictors of motor developmental milestones during the first year of life

  • Original Article
  • Published:
European Journal of Pediatrics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Studies suggest that both pre- and postnatal factors are predictors of age of attaining milestones in infancy. However, no studies evaluate the comparative strength of these predictors and the amount of the variance in development they explain. This study aimed to conduct a systematic evaluation of a broad selection of possible predictors of age at milestone attainment and to identify factors that explain significant inter-individual variance. Mothers of 5765 children of the Copenhagen Perinatal Cohort (1959–61) recorded 12 developmental milestones prospectively during the child’s first year of life. Information on possible predictors was collected during pregnancy and at follow-up and was categorized into the domains: Family background, Pregnancy and delivery, Postnatal influences, and Postnatal growth. The domain Pregnancy and delivery contributed most of the explained variance in Overall mean of milestones (14.4%), with especially gestational age (β = −0.15; p ≤ 0.001) and birth weight (β = −0.16; p ≤ 0.001) being important predictors.

Conclusion: Several individual factors, especially gestational age, birth weight, breastfeeding, having lived in a full-time institution, and weight and head increase in the first year, were significantly associated with milestone attainment in the first year of life. Variables within the domain of Pregnancy and delivery explained the largest proportion of variance in milestone attainment compared to the other domains.

What is known:

• Younger age at attainment of motor developmental milestones positively predicts cognitive outcomes in adulthood.

• Both pre- and postnatal factors have been associated with age of attaining milestones in infancy.

What is new:

• First study to provide a systematic evaluation of a broad selection of predictors of infant milestone attainment.

• Variables within the domain of Pregnancy and delivery, especially gestational age and birth weight, explained the largest proportion of variance in milestone attainment.

• The variance explained by the predictors decreased time-dependently with later milestones.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Bayley N (1965) Comparisons of mental and motor test scores for ages 1-15 months by sex, bith order, race, geographical location, and education of parents. Child Dev 36:379–411

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Cruise S, O’Reilly D (2014) The influence of parents, older siblings, and non-parental care on infant development at nine months of age. Infant Behav Dev 37:546–555

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. de Kieviet JF, Piek JP, Aarnoudse-Moens CS, Oosterlaan J (2009) Motor development in very preterm and very low-birth-weight children from birth to adolescence: a meta-analysis. JAMA 302:2235–2242

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Eriksen HLF, Kesmodel US, Underbjerg M, Kilburn TR, Bertrand J, Mortensen EL (2013) Predictors of intelligence at the age of 5: family, pregnancy and birth characteristics, postnatal influences, and postnatal growth. PLoS One 8:11

    Google Scholar 

  5. Eriksen W, Sundet JM, Tambs K (2010) Birth weight standardized to gestational age and intelligence in young adulthood: a register-based birth cohort study of male siblings. Am J Epidemiol 172:530–536

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Findlay L, Kohen D, Miller A (2014) Developmental milestones among aboriginal children in Canada. Paediatr Child Health 19:241–246

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. Flensborg-Madsen T, Mortensen EL (2015) Infant developmental milestones and adult intelligence: a 34-year follow-up. Early Hum Dev 91:393–400

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Flensborg-Madsen T, Sorensen HJ, Revsbech R, Mortensen EL (2013) Early motor developmental milestones and level of neuroticism in young adulthood: a 23-year follow-up study of the Copenhagen Perinatal Cohort. Psychol Med 43:1293–1301

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Gajewska E, Sobieska M (2015) Qualitative elements of early motor development that influence reaching of the erect posture. A prospective cohort study. Infant Behav Dev 39:124–130

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Gajewska E, Sobieska M, Kaczmarek E, Suwalska A, Steinborn B (2013) Achieving motor development milestones at the age of three months may determine, but does not guarantee, proper further development. ScientificWorldJournal 2013:354218

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Gajewska E, Sobieska M, Moczko J, Kuklinska A, Laudanska-Krzeminska I, Osinski W (2015) Independent reaching of the sitting position depends on the motor performance in the 3rd month of life. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 19:201–208

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Gladstone MJ, Lancaster GA, Jones AP, Maleta K, Mtitimila E, Ashorn P, Smyth RL (2008) Can Western developmental screening tools be modified for use in a rural Malawian setting? Arch Dis Child 93:23–29

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Graffar M (1960) Social study of samples. Mod Probl Pädiat 5:30–42

    Google Scholar 

  14. Hadders-Algra M (2010) Variation and variability: key words in human motor development. Phys Ther 90:1823–1837

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Hindley CB, Filliozat AM, Klackenberg G, Nicolet-Meister D, Sand EA (1966) Differences in age of walking in five European longitudinal samples. Hum Biol 38:364–379

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Horta BL, de Mola CL, Victora CG (2015) Breastfeeding and intelligence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Paediatr 104:14–19

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Kristensen P, Bjerkedal T (2007) Explaining the relation between birth order and intelligence. Science 316:1717

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Kuklina EV, Ramakrishnan U, Stein AD, Barnhart HH, Martorell R (2004) Growth and diet quality are associated with the attainment of walking in rural Guatemalan infants. J Nutr 134:3296–3300

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Majnemer A, Barr RG (2006) Association between sleep position and early motor development. J Pediatr 149:623–629

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Manzardo AM, Penick EC, Knop J, Nickel EJ, Hall S, Jensen P, Gabrielli WF (2005) Developmental differences in childhood motor coordination predict adult alcohol dependence: proposed role for the cerebellum in alcoholism. Alcoholism-Clinical and Experimental Research 29:353–357

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Marin Gabriel MA, Pallas Alonso CR, de la Cruz BJ, Caserio CS, Lopez MM, Moral PM, Alonso DC, Lora PD (2009) Age of sitting unsupported and independent walking in very low birth weight preterm infants with normal motor development at 2 years. Acta Paediatr 98:1815–1821

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. McCrory C, Murray A (2013) The effect of breastfeeding on neuro-development in infancy. Matern Child Health J 17:1680–1688

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Murray GK, Jones PB, Kuh D, Richards M (2007) Infant developmental milestones and subsequent cognitive function. Ann Neurol 62:128–136

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Oddy WH, Robinson M, Kendall GE, Li J, Zubrick SR, Stanley FJ (2011) Breastfeeding and early child development: a prospective cohort study. Acta Paediatr 100:992–999

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Pin TW, Darrer T, Eldridge B, Galea MP (2009) Motor development from 4 to 8 months corrected age in infants born at or less than 29 weeks’ gestation. Dev Med Child Neurol 51:739–745

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Pin TW, Eldridge B, Galea MP (2010) Motor trajectories from 4 to 18 months corrected age in infants born at less than 30 weeks of gestation. Early Hum Dev 86:573–580

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Reinisch JM, Rosenblum LA, Rubin DB, Schulsinger FM (1991) Sex differences in developmental milestones duirng the first year of life. Journal of Psychology & Human Sexuality 4:19–36

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Richards M, Hardy R, Kuh D, Wadsworth MEJ (2001) Birth weight and cognitive function in the British 1946 birth cohort: longitudinal population based study. Br Med J 322:199–203

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Roeber BJ, Tober CL, Bolt DM, Pollak SD (2012) Gross motor development in children adopted from orphanage settings. Dev Med Child Neurol 54:527–531

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Sacker A, Quigley MA, Kelly YJ (2006) Breastfeeding and developmental delay: findings from the millennium cohort study. Pediatrics 118:e682–e689

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Salls JS, Silverman LN, Gatty CM (2002) The relationship of infant sleep and play positioning to motor milestone achievement. Am J Occup Ther 56:577–580

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Schiffman J, Sorensen HJ, Maeda J, Mortensen EL, Victoroff J, Hayashi K, Michelsen NM, Ekstrom M, Mednick S (2009) Childhood motor coordination and adult schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Am J Psychiatry 166:1041–1047

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Siegel EH, Stoltzfus RJ, Kariger PK, Katz J, Khatry SK, LeClerq SC, Pollitt E, Tielsch JM (2005) Growth indices, anemia, and diet independently predict motor milestone acquisition of infants in south central Nepal. J Nutr 135:2840–2844

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Slykerman RF, Thompson JM, Clark PM, Becroft DM, Robinson E, Pryor JE, Wild CJ, Mitchell EA (2007) Determinants of developmental delay in infants aged 12 months. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 21:121–128

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Sorensen HJ, Mortensen EL, Schiffman J, Reinisch JM, Maeda J, Mednick SA (2010) Early developmental milestones and risk of schizophrenia: a 45-year follow-up of the Copenhagen Perinatal Cohort. Schizophr Res 118:41–47

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Sørensen HJ, Mortensen EL, Schiffman J, Reinisch JM, Maeda J, Mednick SA (2010) Early developmental milestones and risk of schizophrenia: a 45-year follow-up of the Copenhagen Perinatal Cohort. Schizophr Res 118:41–47

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. Spittle AJ, Lee KJ, Spencer-Smith M, Lorefice LE, Anderson PJ, Doyle LW (2015) Accuracy of two motor assessments during the first year of life in preterm infants for predicting motor outcome at preschool age. PLoS One 10:e0125854

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Taanila A, Murray GK, Jokelainen J, Isohanni M, Rantakallio P (2005) Infant developmental milestones: a 31-year follow-up. Dev Med Child Neurol 47:581–586

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. van Haastert IC, de Vries LS, Helders PJ, Jongmans MJ (2006) Early gross motor development of preterm infants according to the Alberta Infant Motor Scale. J Pediatr 149:617–622

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Vestergaard M, Obel C, Henriksen TB, Sorensen HT, Skajaa E, Ostergaard J (1999) Duration of breastfeeding and developmental milestones during the latter half of infancy. Acta Paediatr 88:1327–1332

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Villumsen AL (1970) Environmental factors in congenital malformations: a prospective cohort study of 9,006 human pregnancies. FADL’s Forlag, Copenhagen

    Google Scholar 

  42. WHO (2006) Assessment of sex differences and heterogeneity in motor milestone attainment among populations in the WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study. Acta Paediatr Suppl 450:66–75

    Google Scholar 

  43. WHO (2006) WHO Motor Development Study: windows of achievement for six gross motor development milestones. Acta Paediatr Suppl 450:86–95

    Google Scholar 

  44. World Health Organization (2006) Relationship between physical growth and motor development in the WHO Child Growth Standards. Acta Paediatr Suppl 450:96–101

    Google Scholar 

  45. Zachau-Christiansen B (1972) The influence of prenatal and perinatal factors on development during the first year of life. Poul A, Andersens Forlag, Helsingør

    Google Scholar 

  46. Zachau-Christiansen B, Ross EM (1975) Babies: human development during the first year. John Wiley, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We are indebted to the infants and parents for taking part in this study. The authors acknowledge the crucial role of AL Villumsen and B Zachau-Christiansen in the establishment of the Copenhagen Perinatal Cohort and thank the Steering Committee for the Copenhagen Perinatal Cohort for the permission to conduct this study. We acknowledge the contribution of Sarah Jegsmark Gibbons for her assistance in searching through the scientific literature. Finally, the authors thank Esther Mortensen for her critical comments and help with the manuscript.

Authors’ Contributions

Trine Flensborg-Madsen conceptualized and designed the study, analyzed the data, performed the statistical analyses, drafted the initial manuscript, and wrote the final manuscript with contribution from the co-author.

Erik Lykke Mortensen conceptualized and designed the study, reviewed and revised the initial manuscript, and approved the final manuscript as submitted.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Unit of Medical Psychology, Department of Public Health, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 5A, 1353, Copenhagen K, Denmark

    Trine Flensborg-Madsen & Erik Lykke Mortensen

  2. Center for Healthy Aging, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3B, 2200, Copenhagen N, Denmark

    Trine Flensborg-Madsen & Erik Lykke Mortensen

Authors
  1. Trine Flensborg-Madsen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Erik Lykke Mortensen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Trine Flensborg-Madsen.

Ethics declarations

Funding

This study was supported by a grant from the IMK Almene Fond to Trine Flensborg-Madsen. In addition, the study was supported by grants HD-17655 and HD-20263 from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development to June Reinisch, a grant from the National Institute of Drug Abuse to June Reinisch, a grant 9700093 from the Danish Research Council to Erik Lykke Mortensen, and grant 1400/2-4-1997 from the Danish National Board of Health to Erik Lykke Mortensen.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Ethical approval

This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Additional information

Communicated by Mario Bianchetti

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Flensborg-Madsen, T., Mortensen, E.L. Predictors of motor developmental milestones during the first year of life. Eur J Pediatr 176, 109–119 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00431-016-2817-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00431-016-2817-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation