Abstract
Background
The use of benchmark dose (BMD) and the 95% lower confidence limit of benchmark dose (BMDL) have been gaining popularity not only in experimental studies but also in epidemiological studies including those on toxicology of cadmium (Cd), a ubiquitous hazardous element in the environment. However, the reproducibility of BMD and BMDL values has seldom been examined.
Objectives
This study was initiated to determine whether consistent BMD and BMDL values are obtained for similar non-exposed populations, i.e., the populations with no anthropogenic exposure to Cd in a single nation of Japan.
Methods
Cd (an exposure marker), α1-microglobulin (α1-MG), β2-microglobulin (β2-MG) and N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase (NAG) (three effect markers of tubular dysfunction) levels in the urine of adult Japanese women from five previous publications of this study group were examined. Overall, data were available for 17,375 cases (in 16 prefectures) regarding Cd, α1-MG and β2-MG, and 6,409 cases (in ten prefectures) regarding NAG. The data were used to calculate BMD and BMDL values taking advantage of the hybrid approach (Budtz-Jǿrgensen et al. in Biometrics 57:698–706, 2001). It was possible to calculate BMD and BMDL values for α1-MG and β2-MG for all of the 16 prefectures with 17,375 cases, whereas the values for NAG were successfully calculated for nine prefectures with 5,843 cases.
Results
The application gave BMD values of 1.92, 2.46 and 2.32 μg Cd/g cr for α1-MG, β2-MG and NAG, respectively, and BMDL values of 1.83, 2.32 and 2.09 μg Cd/g cr. Large inter-prefectural variations were observed in the BMD and BMDL; there was about fourfold difference both in BMD and in BMDL calculated for α1-MG and β2-MG in 16 prefectures, and the variation was greater (i.e., by about sevenfold) in BMD and BMDL for NAG in nine prefectures. A survey of relevant literature revealed variation in BMD and BMDL values of similar folds as observed in the present analyses in five studies of Japanese populations. Multiple regression analyses taking BMD or BMDL as a dependent variable and age, CR concentration and Cd concentration as independent variables showed both BMD and BMDL were significantly influenced by Cd concentration in cases of α1-MG and β2-MG, whereas BMD and BMDL for NAG was by CR.
Conclusions
Even when the analysis was conducted in a single nation, both BMD and BMDL for the Cd effect markers varied by ca. fourfold when examining α1-MG or β2-MG and the values varied by ca. sevenfold for NAG among Cd-non-exposed populations. The most influential factors in the study population may include urine density and Cd levels in the urine.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bailer AJ, Stayner LT, Smith RJ, Kuempel ED, Prince MM (1997) Estimating benchmark concentrations and other noncancer endpoints in epidemiology studies. Risk Anal 17:771–780
Bernard A (2008) Biomarkers of metal toxicity in population studies; research potential and interpretation issues. J Toxicol Environ Health A71:1259–1265
Budtz-Jǿrgensen E, Reiding N, Grandjean P (2001) Benchmark dose calculation from epidemiological data. Biometrics 57:698–706
Chen L, Jin T, Huang B, Nordberg G, Nordberg M (2006) Critical exposure level of cadmium for elevated urinary metallothionein—an occupational population study in China. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 215:93–99
Crump K (2002) Critical issues in benchmark calculations from continuous data. Crt Rev Toxicol 32:133–153
Dakeishi M, Iwata T, Ishii N, Murata K (2004) Effects of alcohol consumption on hepatocellular injury in Japanese men. Tohoku J Exp Med 202:31–39
Dakeishi M, Murata K, Tamura A, Iwata T (2006) Relation between dose and no-observed-adverse-effect level in clinical research: effects of daily alcohol intake on blood pressure in Japanese salesmen. Risk Anal 26:115–123
European Food Safety Authority (2009a) Use of the benchmark dose approach in risk assessment: guideline of the SAcientific Committee. EFSA J 1150:1–72
European Food Safety Authority: Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (2009b) Scientific opinion on cadmium in food on a request from the European Commission on cadmium in food. EFSA J 980:1–139
Ezaki T, Tsukahara T, Moriguchi J, Furuki K, Fukui Y, Ukai H, Okamoto S, Sakurai H, Honda S, Ikeda M (2003a) No clear-cut evidence for cadmium-induced tubular dysfunction among over 10,000 women in the Japanese general population; a nationwide large-scale survey. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 76:186–196
Ezaki T, Tsukahara T, Moriguchi J, Furuki K, Fukui Y, Ukai H, Okamoto S, Sakurai H, Honda S, Ikeda M (2003b) Analysis for threshold levels of cadmium in urine that induce tubular dysfunction among women in non-polluted areas in Japan. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 76:197–204
Filipsson AF, Sand S, Nilsson J, Victorin K (2003) The benchmark dose method—review of available models, and recommendations for application in health risk assessment. Crit Rev Toxicol 33:505–542
Hong F, Jin T, Zhang A (2004) Risk assessment on renal dysfunction caused by co-exposure to arsenic and cadmium using benchmark dose calculation in a Chinese population. Biometals 17:573–580
Ikeda M, Fukui Y, Ohashi F, Sakuragi S, Moriguchi J (2011) Low cadmium levels in urine of residents in two prefectures where cadmium levels in locally harvested brown rice are higher than in other prefectures in Japan. Biol Trace Elem Res 139:217–227
Jackson S (1966) Creatinine in urine as an index of urinary excretion rate. Health Phys 12:843–850
Jin T, Wu X, Tang T, Nordberg M, Bernard A, Ye T, Kong Q, Lundström N-G, Nordberg GF (2004) Environmental epidemiological study and estimation of benchmark dose for renal tubular dysfunction in a cadmium-polluted area in China. Biometals 17:525–530
Karita K, Yano E, Dakeishi M, Iwata T, Murata K (2005) Benchmark dose of lead inducing anemia at the workplace. Risk Anal 25:957–962
Kobayashi E, Suwazono Y, Uetani M, Inaba T, Oishi M, Kido T, Nishijo M, Nakagawa H, Nogawa K (2006a) Estimation of benchmark dose as the threshold levels of urinary cadmium, based on excretion of total protein, β2-microglobulin, and N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase in cadmium nonpolluted regions in Japan. Environ Res 101:401–406
Kobayashi E, Suwazono Y, Uetani M, Inaba T, Oishi M, Kido T, Nishijo M, Nakagawa H, Nogawa K (2006b) Estimation of benchmark dose for renal dysfunction in a cadmium non-polluted area in Japan. J Appl Toxicol 26:351–355
Kobayashi E, Suwazono Y, Dochi M, Honda R, Nishijo M, Kido T, Nakagawa H (2008) Estimation of benchmark dose as threshold levels of urinary cadmium, based on excretion of β2-microglobulin in cadmium-polluted and non-polluted regions in Japan. Toxicol Lett 179:108–112
Lei L-J, Jin T-Y, Nordberg M, Chang X-U (2007) Estimation of benchmark dose for pancreatic damage in cadmium-exposed smelters. Toxicol Sci 97:189–195
Morales KH, Ryan LM (2005) Benchmark dose estimation based on epidemiologic cohort data. Environmetrics 16:435–447
Moriguchi J, Ezaki T, Tsukahara T, Furuki K, Fukui Y, Okamoto S, Ukai H, Sakurai H, Ikeda M (2004) α1-Microglobulin as a promising marker of cadmium-induced tubular dysfunction, possibly better than β2-microglobulin. Toxicol Lett 148:11–20
Moriguchi J, Ezaki T, Tsukahara T, Fukui Y, Ukai H, Okamoto S, Shimbo S, Sakurai H, Ikeda M (2005a) Effects of aging on cadmium and tubular dysfunction markers in urine from adult women in non-polluted areas. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 78:446–451
Moriguchi J, Ezaki T, Tsukahara T, Furuki K, Fukui Y, Okamoto S, Ukai H, Sakurai H, Ikeda M (2005b) α1-Microglobulin levels and correlation with cadmium and other metals in urine of non-smoking women among general populations in Japan. Toxicol Environ Chem 87:119–133
Moriguchi J, Inoue Y, Kamiyama S, Sakuragi S, Horiguchi M, Murata K, Fukui Y, Ohashi F, Ikeda M (2010) Cadmium and tubular dysfunction marker levels in urine of residents in non-polluted areas with natural abundance of cadmium in Japan. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 83:455–466
Murata K, Sakai T, Morita Y, Iwata T, Dakeishi M (2003) Critical dose of lead affecting δ-aminolevulinic acid levels. J Occup Health 45:209–214
Muri SD, Schlatter JR, Brüschweiler BJ (2009) The benchmark dose approach in food risk assessment: is it applicable and worthwhile? Food Chem Toxicol 47:2906–2925
Park RM, Bowler RM, Eggerth DE, Diamond E, Spencer KJ, Smith D, Gwiazda R (2006) Issues in neurological risk assessment for occupational exposure; the Bay Bridge welders. Neurotoxicology 27:373–384
Sand S, von Rosen D, Victorin K, Filipsson AF (2006) Identification of a critical dose level for risk assessment: developments in benchmark dose analysis of continuous endpoints. Toxicol Sci 90:241–251
Santamaria AB, Sulsky SI (2010) Risk assessment of an essential element: manganese. J Toxicol Environ Health 73:128–155
Shao B, Jin TY, Wu XW, Kong OH, Ye TT (2007) Application of benchmark dose (BMD) in estimating biological exposure limit (BEL) to cadmium. Biomed Environ Sci 20:460–464
Shimizu A, Kobayashi E, Suwazono Y, Uetani M, Oishi M, Inaba T, Kido T, Nogawa K (2006) Estimation of benchmark doses for urinary cadmium based on β2-microglobulin excretion in cadmium-polluted regions of the Kakehashi River basin, Japan. Int J Environ Health Res 16:329–337
Slob W, Moerbeek M, Rauniomaa E, Piersma AH (2005) A statistical evaluation of toxicity study designs for the estimation of the benchmark dose in continuous endpoints. Toxicol Sci 84:167–185
Suwazono Y, Sand S, Vahter M, Filipsson AF, Skerfving S, Lidfeldt J, Akesson A (2006) Benchmark dose for cadmium-induced renal effects in humans. Environ Health Perspect 114:1072–1076
Suwazono Y, Nagashima S, Okubo Y, Uetani M, Kobayashi E, Kido T, Nogawa K (2007) Estimation of the number of working hours critical for the development of mental and physical fatigue symptoms in Japanese male workers—application of benchmark dose method. Am J Ind Med 50:173–182
Suwazono Y, Sand S, Vahter M, Skerfving S, Lidfeldt J, Åkesson A (2010a) Benchmark dose for cadmium-induced osteoporosis in women. Toxicol Lett 197:123–127
Suwazono Y, Uetani M, Åkesson A, Vahter M (2010b) Recent applications of benchmark dose method for estimation of reference cadmium exposure for renal effects in man. Toxicol Lett 198:40–43
Tsukahara T, Ezaki T, Moriguchi J, Furuki K, Fukui Y, Ukai H, Okamoto S, Sakurai H, Ikeda M (2003) No significant effect of iron deficiency on cadmium body burden or kidney dysfunction among women in the general population in Japan. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 76:275–281
Uno T, Kobayashi E, Suwazono Y, Okubo Y, Miura K, Sakata K, Okayama A, Ueshima H, Nakagawa H, Nogawa K (2005) Health effects of cadmium exposure in the general environment in Japan with special reference to the lower limit of the benchmark dose as the threshold level of urinary cadmium. Scand J Work Environ Health 31:307–315
van Wijngaarden E, Beck C, Shamlaye CF, Cernichiari E, Davidson PW, Myers GJ, Clarkson TW (2006) Benchmark concentrations for methyl mercury obtained from the 9-year follow-up of the Seychelles Child Development Study. Neurotoxicology 27:702–709
Yamagami T, Ezaki T, Moriguchi J, Fukui Y, Okamoto S, Ukai H, Sakurai H, Aoshima K, Ikeda M (2006) Low-level cadmium exposure in Toyama City and its surroundings in Toyama prefecture, Japan, with references to possible contribution of shellfish intake to increase urinary cadmium levels. Sci Total Environ 362:56–67
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the administration and staff of the Kyoto Industrial Health Association, Kyoto, Japan, for their interest in and support for this study.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sakuragi, S., Takahashi, K., Hoshuyama, T. et al. Variation in benchmark dose (BMD) and the 95% lower confidence limit of benchmark dose (BMDL) among general Japanese populations with no anthropogenic exposure to cadmium. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 85, 941–950 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-012-0734-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-012-0734-z